PRACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC 



FRIJIT CFLTURE 



PEACTICAL AND SCIENTIFIC 



FRUIT CULTURE 



BY 

CHARLES R. BAKER, 

OF THE 

DORCHESTER NURSERIES. 



ILLUSTRATED. 



BOSTON: 
LEE AND SHEPAKD 

LONDON: TRUBNER AND CO. 
1866. 

V 



Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1865. 
By CIIAKLES R. BAKER, 
In tlie Clerk's Office of the District Court for the District of Massachusetts. 



^<,^^ 



gTEFvEOTYPED BY WAKREN F. DKAPErv. 



^.^ \ let Presswork by Jolm Wilson and Sons. 



THIS VOLUME 

IS 

RESPECTFULLY INSCRIBED TO AMERICAN FRUIT-GROWERS, 



HOPE THAT IT MAY ENCOURAGE AND ASSIST BEGINNERS, AND BE FOUND 
CONFORMED TO THE EXPERIENCE OF THE BEST CULTIVATORS, 



^g il^z g.ulI]or. 



PREFACE. 



IVTHILE there are a number of excellent works 
descriptive of fruits, and compiled from ripe 
experience and large observation, yet there are 
few, if any, which give in detail the arts of culti- 
vation. 

The minutiae and practical application of these 
arts become more important as the interest in fruit- 
culture increases, and the profits are understood. 
On these topics so much has already been published 
as to prevent any demand for additional remark. 
But in the progress of our legitimate business a 
multitude of inquiries are annually proposed, by cus- 
tomers and others, relative to the various branches 



12 PREFACE. 

of these arts, which are important to their success, 
but to which they cannot readily obtain satisfactory 
rephes. Thus we have felt ourselves called upon 
to submit the results of our researches and experi- 
ence to the public in print, hoping that the present 
volume, though not perfect and complete, may yet 
be acceptable and useful to beginners in the culti- 
vation of the garden, the orchard, and the vineyard. 
And, lest our connection with the Hon. Marshall P. 
Wilder, of enviable renown for his contributions to 
American Pomology, should lead our readers or the 
public to think him responsible for what we have 
written, we feel it to be due to his official position, 
and to our pleasant and intimate relation to him, 
to say that he is in no degree accountable for any 
peculiar sentiments herein expressed. 

We have received from him many valuable sug- 
gestions, and are largely indebted to his library and 



PREFACE. 13 

mature knowledge ; and deeply regret that his feeble 
health, during the preparation of this work, has to a 
great extent deprived us of his counsel, and the 
benefits which we and the public might otherwise 
have derived from his personal revision of our 
manuscript. 

For the original suggestion which led to the 
preparation of this volume, I gratefully acknowl- 
edge my indebtedness to my esteemed friend H. F. 
DuRANT, Esq. ; also to my beloved father, Kev. A. 
R Baker, for additional assistance. 

To the following works and authors I am also 
indebted for many valuable hints, generally indicated 
in the text : 

The Gardener's Chronicle. 

Loudon's Gardeners' Magazine. 

Loudon's Encyclopedia of Gardening. 
2 



14 PREFACE. 

Johnston's Agricultural Chemistry. 
Stockhardt's Field Chemistry. 
Johnston's Farmers' Encyclopedia. 
Lindley's Introduction to Botany. 
Leibig's Natural Laws of Husbandry. 
TuU's Horse-Hoe Husbandry. 
French's Land Drainage. 
Girdwood's Encyclopedia. 
Miiller's Meteorology. 
Blodgett's Climatology. 
Annals of Natural History. 

Espy on Storms. 

Eevue Horticole. 

Transactions of the London Horticultural Society. 

Eivers's Miniature Garden. 

Insects Injurious to Vegetation. 

Transactions of the American Pomological Society. 

Patent Office Reports. 

The Philosophical Magazine. 



PREFACE. 15 



Squarery's Agricultural Chemistry. 

Quarterly Journal of Agriculture. 

Geological Survey of Massachusetts. 

Annales de la Chimie. 

Sproule's Treatise on Agriculture. 

Monographic des Greffes. 

Bibliotheca Agraria. 

De Re Rustica. 

The Theory of Horticulture. 

Outlines of Flemish Husbandry. 

Davy's Agricultural Chemistry. 

Electricity in Theory and Practice. 

Jenyns's Observations upon Meteorology. 

Synopsis of North American Fungi. 

De Candolle's Vegetable Physiology. 

Botanische Zeitung. 1854. 

Physique des Arbres. 1758. 

Comptes Rendus. 1853. 

Introduction to Chryptogamic Botany. 



16 PREFACE. 

Fitche's Noxious Insects, Published in Transactions 
of New York State Agricultural Society. 

Address to the Meteorological Society of Scotland, by 
Dr. Jas. Stark. 

We also acknowledge the kind and generous 
assistance of Prof. Glover of the Maryland Insti- 
tute. 



CONTENTS 



CHAPTER I. 

METEOROLOGICAL AGENTS. 

Altitude — Aspect or exposure — Contiguous bodies of water — Nature 
of storms — Climate of eastern and western districts compared — 
Snow storms — Severe wind — Stagnant air — Aqueous vapor — 
Heat — Light — The limits of the vine — Tables — Cold — Elec- 
tricity — Different exposures ; as the summit of hills, northern, 
southern 25 

CHAPTER n. 

ORIGIN AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 

Soils the result of disintegration — Causes stated by Sir H. Davy — 
Boussingault — Hitchcock — Alluvial agencies. Properties : Spe- 
cific gravity — Affinity for moisture — Absorption of moisture from 
the air — Capillary attraction — State of division — Cohesion and 
adhesion — Absorption of gases from the atmosphere — absorption 

and retention of heat 49 

2* 



18 CONTENTS. 

CHAPTER III. 

CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF SOILS. 

Section I. Classification of soils ; Section 11. Adaptation to different 
fruits — Varieties of the apple, apricot, berberry, cherry, currant, fig, 
gooseberry, grape, peach, and nectarine — Varieties of the pear, 
plum, quince, raspberry, strawberry 79 



CHAPTER lY. 



DRAINING THE SOIL. 



Method by which the soil is supplied with moisture : rain, springs — 
Description of different strata — Capillary attraction — Methods by 
which water is removed : running off its surface — Evaporation — 
Percolating through its substance — What lands require drainage — 
The direction of the drains — The distance — The depth — The 
material to be used — Number of tile to the acre — Manner of 
operation — The effects of drainage : promoting pulverization — 
Prevention of injury by drought — Increase of the absorption of 
moisture — Ventilation — Permitting the warm spring showers to 
enter the soil — Freezing the land deeper — Deepening the soil — 
Destroying weeds — Causing a more hardy growth — Production 
becomes more certain . . 90 



CONTENTS. 19 

CHAPTER Y. 

PULVERIZATION. 

A crumbling consistency of soils necessary — The importance of pul- 
verization — Stiflfness of clays — The non-retention of sandy soils — 
Coldness of heavy earths — Summers — Injurious effects of drought 

— Example of proper valuation of arable soil — Theory of Jethro 
Tull — ^ Effect of insects upon pulverization — Depth — Digging 
circles around trees deprecated — Power of extension by roots — 
Deep cultivation affords fresh earth — Manner of operation — The 
season — Results of it : rapid absorption of moisture — Free admis- 
sion of the air — The mixture of earths — The destruction of insects 

— The increase of heat 126 



CHAPTER VI. 

FERTILIZATION. 

Selective power of plants — Form in which food Is taken up — Ex- 
cretion — Circulation of the sap — Organic substances : Oxygen, hy- 
drogen, carbon, nitrogen — Inorganic substances — Manures adapted 
to different soils : to clays, to peaty soils, to sandy lands — Plants to 
be used in green-manuring — Application of manures . . 164 



20 CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER YII. 

SELECTION OF VARIETIES. 

Evils of indiscriminate selection — Fruits suitable for the amateur, for 
family use, for the market — Catalogue of the different varieties 
adapted to the different sections of the country — The best six, 
twelve, twenty, or one hundred sorts, for each state • • 201 



CHAPTER Yin. 

SELECTION, ARRANGEMENT, AND TRANSPLANTATION. 

Section I. Selection of the tree : The apple — Root-grafted trees — 
Height of the tree no criterion of its value — Where they should 
limb — The pea,ch — The vine — The currant and gooseberry — 
The strawberry, raspberry, and blackberry. Section II. Arrange- 
ment : Intensive planting — A garden of one square rod — A garden 
of sixteen square rods — Apple orchards — Square planting for the 
pear — Quincunx — Distances, and number of trees upon an acre. 
Section III. The transplantation : Season of — Conditions most 
favorable to — Depth of — The dwarf pear — Manner of operation 
— The movement of large trees by machinery . . . 271 



CONTENTS. 21 

CHAPTER IX. 

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 

The amputation of the limbs of a tree based upon scientific principles 

— Facts necessary to be kept in mind : Importance of a sharp knife 

— The method of making the cut — Severe pruning productive of 
vigor and sterility — The removal of a part of the wood of a weak 
plant strengthens the remainder — Importance of sunshine to all parts 
of the tree — Circulation of air — Distinguishing the peculiarities of 
the variety — The prevention and cure of disease — The season : 
Spring and summer — Pruning after transplanting — Training the 
peach and nectarine: Seymour's system — Oblique rod — Oblique 
double rod — Double oblique rod — Standard — Horizontal treUis- 
training — The apricot — The pear — Standard, quenouille, wineglass, 
etc. — The cherry — The vine — The system of the Ionian islands — 
Simple cane — Simple thomery. Plan practised In Ohio — The cur- 
rant — The gooseberry — The raspberry — The blackberry — The 
strawberry — Koot-pruning 301 

CHAPTER X. 

SUMMER CULTIVATION. 

Kemoval of moss and decayed bark — Loosening the soil — Mulching 

— Thinning the fruit — Einging — Watering, tying, supporting, and 
gathering the fruit — Preservation 345 



22 CONTENTS. 



CHAPTER XI. 

GRAFTING AND BUDDING. 

Influence of the stock — Of the scion — The season — The wax — 
Methods — The cleft — Gerffe a un seul rameau, dont une partie du 
sujet est coupee en biseau — The crown — Tubular budding with dor- 
mant eyes — The peg — Greffe sylvain, renewal, side, whip ; — Greffe 
ferari de Thouin — Grafting fruit-spurs — Inarching — Greffe mor- 
ceau — Common inarching, in the axis of the leaf, square bud, tu- 
bular bud — Greffe en ecusson — The budding-machine — For 
immediate fruiting — Renewal — Grafting the vine — Midsummer — 
Embryonic 364 

CHAPTER XII 

THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. 

Change in the vegetable world — Effect of climate, soil, and position — 
Cultivation, degeneracy, or deterioration — Decrepitude — Methods 
of production — Selection — Van Mon's theory as distinguished from 
it — Cultivated fruits not descended from their mild types — Impor- 
tance of securing seed from a young tree — Hybridization — Exper- 
iments of Kolreuter, Herbert, Knight, Gaertner, Lindley, Purklnje, 
Mirbel, Adolphe Brogniart, Conrad Sprengel, Cassini, Alphonse de 
Candolle, Schleiden, Fritsche, Thwaites, Mr. Eogers — Manner of 
operation 384 



CONTENTS. 23 

CHAPTER XIII. 

THE DISEASES OF FRUIT-BEARING PLANTS. 

Section I. General observations — Berkeley's theory of classification — 
Weigmann — Causes of disease — Insects. Section 11. Diseases of 
the apple — of the leaf — Fall of the leaf — Fungi — Clados porium 
dendriticum, ceratites, raestella — Insects — Apple-tree louse, com- 
mon apple-tree caterpillar, the oak-tree caterpillar, the vaporer moth, 
the palmer worm, the hag moth, the unicorn moth, the canker worm, 
the handmaid moth, the dotted apple-leaf worm ; of the fruit and 
flower — Sterility — Immaturity of the fruit — Insects — The saw- 
fly, the midge, the codling moth, the rose-bug ; of the stem — Insects 
— The goat moth, the common borer, root-blight insect, the snapping 
beetle, the bark louse, the locust of the seventeenth year; of the 
tree generally — Profusion of sap, hunger, stagnation from transplan- 
tation, canker, freezing, splitting, wind shakes, dropsy, sun-strokes, 
wounds, lichens, vitiation of the sap. Section III. Diseases of the 
pear — Of the leaf — American pear blight — Insects — The gold- 
smith beetle, the red mite, the fly, the lyda, the astyages, the hispa 
quadrata, fungi, discolorations ; of the fruit and flower — Rotting at 
the core, induration, loss of bloom, etc. ; of the stem — Root blight — 
Insects — The blight beetle, the bark louse, fungi, etc. Section IV. 
Diseases of the peach — The dotted apple-leaf worm, premature fall 
of the fruit, the borer, gumming, etc. Section V. Diseases of the 
plum — Plum louse, curculio, the plum wart, etc. Section VI. 



24 CONTENTS. 

Diseases of the cherry — The louse, the May beetle, etc. Section 
Vn. Diseases of the gooseberry — The caterpillar, the swallow-tailed 
moth, the midge, the mildew, etc. Section Yin. Diseases of the 
currant — Fall of the leaf, the borer, etc. Section IX. Diseases of 
the raspberry — The grub, etc. Section X. Diseases of the vine — 
Of the leaf — Insects — The vine plume, the saw-fly, the anomola 
vitis, the spotted beetle, the pyralis, the procris Americana, the 
haltica chalybea, the leaf hopper, the bombyx quata, the philampelus, 
the choerocamepa, the rhynchitis, fungi, common mildew, erysiphe, 
botrytis; of the fruit and flower — The rose-bug, shanking . 421 



FRUIT CULTUEE. 



CHAPTEE I. 

METEOROLOGICAL AGENTS. 

ALTITUDE — ASPECT OR EXPOSURE — CONTIGUOUS BODIES OF WATER — 
NATURE or STORMS — CLIMATE OF EASTERN AND WESTERN DISTRICTS 
COMPARED SNOW STORMS SEVERE WIND — STAGNANT AIR AQUE- 
OUS VAPOR — HEAT LIGHT — THE LIMITS OF THE VINE TABLES 

COLD ELECTRICITY — DIFFERENT EXPOSURES: AS THE SUMMIT OF 

HILLS, NORTHERN, SOUTHERN. 

nnHE meteorological agents which affect the pro- 
duction of fruit have never received from hor- 
ticultural writers the notice which they deserve. 
They are necessarily more recondite than the qual- 
ities or condition of the soil ; and because less 
evident, they have been passed over in silence ; yet 
the importance of understanding atmospheric phe- 
nomena is, in some respects, even greater than a 
knowledge of the soil. 

In one part of a country a certain fruit is utterly 
worthless ; its wood is killed by the winter, and its 
skin becomes spotted and cracked in summer. This 
same variety may, in another district, be universally 
fair and delicious, while its wood remains as free 
from damage in the winter as the native trees of 
3 



26 ALTITUDE. 

the forest. This phenomenon is often noticed upon 
different sides of the same hill. In the latter case, 
it cannot certainly be the soil which causes such 
varied results; but we must refer them to atmos- 
pheric agencies. 

Among the most important facts to be determined 
is the effect of different altitudes upon vegetation. 
It does not require more than a child's discrimina- 
tion to discover that the temperature upon the sum- 
mit of a mountain is much lower than at its base, 
and therefore that a fruit which flourishes at its 
foot would not do so if planted in the most pro- 
pitious place upon its top. Naturalists tell us that 
if we start where the first glimpses of vegetation 
appear at the frigid zone, and approach the tropics, 
we shall perceive all the different stages of the vege- 
table creation, in the same order in which they were 
placed upon the earth. As we ascend a mountain 
the effect is reversely the same. Hence it becomes 
evident that to determine properly the limit for the 
cultivation of a plant, it would be useless to draw 
parallel lines, like those which we use for latitude, 
because the same line would pass over valley and 
mountain in which the temperature would vary 
several degrees. 

In assigning a position to the isothermal lines, 
now quite common in geographical maps, there 
are several other facts to be considered. 

Aspect^ or exposure^ exerts a powerful influence 



EXPOSURE. 27 

upon fruit cultivation. For instance, while some 
varieties of grapes will not ripen if exposed to the 
north or west, they mature quite early on a south- 
ern or eastern slope. Therefore, if an isothermal 
line is to be an infallible guide, it should run down 
on the latter, and up on the former. Some slopes 
are open to furious and chilling winds from the cold 
regions, which tend to depress the line. 

These are among the more general facts to be 
considered. It can readily be seen that perfect ac- 
curacy must be practically impossible. The culti- 
vator mmst exercise a wise judgment with regard to 
these principles, or his efforts will not be crowned 
with complete success. 

Among the more general facts which should 
guide us in determining the limits of the successful 
cultivation of different fruits, and the proper selec- 
tion of exposure for each variety, let us notice the 
effects of large, contiguous bodies of water ; or the 
difference between island or coast, and inland or 
continental climate, — a difference which is very 
striking in respect to the limits of cultivating a 
particular plant. This is owing to the greater ease 
with which land rather than water absorbs and radi- 
ates heat. Land becomes warm much sooner, but 
falls in temperature with equal rapidity. On the 
contrary, the sea is not so soon heated, on account 
of its brilliant surface, which reflects the rays of the 
sun ; neither is it so soon cooled, owing to the great 



28 BODIES OF WATER. 

amount of its specific heat. "While the land changes 
its temperature very considerably with the diurnal 
r.nd annual alternations, the sea does so to a less 
degree. During the night, the effect of water upon 
the coast is to w^arm, and in the day to cool the 
land. The same results are produced on the change 
of the seasons : both the spring and autumn are 
later. Places on the shore of large bodies of water 
have frequently a clouded sky, and these arrest the 
rays of heat from above, as well as prevent its loss 
by radiation from beneath. Therefore, island or 
coast climates are never subject to such extremes of 
weather as are those of the interior. M. Boussin- 
gault states that the temperature of London and 
Paris is about the same, while the latitude of the 
latter is nearly three degrees lower. 

As we travel from the coast toward the interior, 
the difference between the mean temperature of 
summer and winter is much greater than on the 
seaboard. Rivers, lakes, and ponds possess to> some 
extent the same power of equalizing temperature, 
according to their size ; and therefore we can per- 
ceive the great value of isothermal lines established 
by Baron Yon Humboldt, which are a guide to the 
general temperature, independent of the parallels of 
latitude. 

By reference to an isothermal map which gives 
the mean temperature of the United States for 
the four seasons, we shall ascertain that this mean 



NATURE OF STORMS. 29 

degree is the same at Fort Snelling, Minnesota, and 
at Boston ; while there is a diiference in the latitude 
of these places of two and a half degrees. The 
autumn of the former is colder than that of Boston ; 
therefore, if we possessed no more information, we 
should determine that the growing season was 
shorter and colder than that of the Atlantic coast, 
and that fruits which succeed near the latter would 
not flourish in Minnesota. But we must remem- 
ber that the efi'ect of ocean upon the coast in the 
spring is to cool it ; and, consequently, that the 
ground at Fort Snelling becomes sensible of the 
warm spring sun much quicker, and is free from 
the cooling influence of the water all summer. The 
mean spring temperature is like that of Southern 
Connecticut or New York. Those fruits which 
hardly reach maturity in the Northern Atlantic 
States, ripen fully and much earlier there, because 
the heat of spring and summer is so much more 
intense. 

From the manner in which altitude, exposure, 
and the presence of bodies of water aff'ect climate, 
the importance of considering atmospheric influences 
in the selection of sites for our orchards must have 
become evident. Let us investigate further the gen- 
eral phenomena which produce good or bad results 
in the growth of fruits. 

1. The nature of storms. The difl'erence in these 

3* 



30 STORMS. 

and in the climate east and west of the Rocky Moun- 
tains is very marked. The prevailing winds of our 
continent are western. Although the eastern dis- 
trict comprises a most extensive area in several 
latitudes, yet its general features are similar. It 
is subject to great extremes, — a cold winter, and a 
semi-tropical summer. The variety of its indigenous 
plants is very great. The vapor arising from the 
Gulf of Mexico is condensed as it passes over the 
land, and, falling until it is taken by this western 
current, it is spread over the whole eastern portion 
of the continent. When these winds are most 
severe, as in the autumn, when the trees are laden 
with fruit, as well as in early spring, the importance 
of shelter in exposed positions will readily occur to 
every practical cultivator. But this will be consid- 
ered hereafter. 

While there are some benefits resulting from the 
variableness of temperature in the Eastern States, 
there are also serious disadvantages, — such as the 
destruction of the fruit-buds of the most tender 
species and varieties in the more northern States, 
and the encouragement of the fungi, as well as of 
other diseases incident to a sudden check or accel- 
eration of the sap-flow. 

On the contrary, the climate of the Pacific coast 
is characterized by great equanimity. If the dis- 
eases resulting from sudden changes and extremes 
of temperature exist at all, it is in their most ameli- 



SNOW AND ICE. 31 

orated form. The temperate climate of Spain finds 
there a rival ; and the wine-grapes of Germany, Italy, 
and even those of our hothouses, succeed there per- 
fectly. The thermometer seldom falls below forty- 
seven degrees Fahrenheit, or rises above sixty. 

2. Snoiv stoyms. The benefits and evils resulting 
from these are about equal. Upon strawberries the 
effect is decidedly good, as it defends the tender 
crown-buds which are to produce the fruit of the 
next year. The result is the same upon all small 
fruits, such as currants, gooseberries, and raspber- 
ries, as it modifies the extremes of temperature. 
When the snow has melted, if the water stands 
upon the gound, the subsequent effect may be dis- 
astrous : it becomes frozen, and settles down upon 
strawberries, frequently occasioning their death. The 
cause may not be uniform ; sometimes it may be ow- 
ing to the exclusion of air : and yet it is difficult to 
understand that plants in a dormant or frozen state 
should require air. If the snow first melts, then 
freezes, it forms a crust of ice, that may act as a 
lens to concentrate the sun's rays and burn the 
plant. The presence of ice upon the ground about 
all trees or plants is very dangerous. The radiation 
of heat from the tree near the surface of the ice 
prevents it from being frozen so solid that the plant 
cannot move, else the result might not be so ruin- 
ous. A little unfrozen belt surrounds the tree, and 



32 ICE-GIRDLED TREES. 

against the sharp edge of the ice the tree is blown 
by the wind until the bark is cut through, when 
the plant is completely girdled. The sap passes 
from the roots to the leaves, through the wood of 
the tree, and this will not be impeded by the wound ; 
but as the juice descends in the liber, or inner bark, 
it finds its course stopped, and the superfluous sap 
produces a large swelling in its endeavor to provide 
a channel. If the cut is not very wide, and the 
injury has taken place recently, so that the lower 
edge of the bark is still fresh, a junction will some- 
times be formed. If, however, the case be otherwise, 
it will be necessary to resort to artificial means. 

The strongest and most luxuriant shoots of the 
previous year's growth may be cut a little longer 
than the width of the wound, and after the ends 
are sharpened upon both sides, they may be placed 
under the bark above and below, — the flat side of 
the shoot facing the centre of the tree, thus bridg- 
ing over the cut. 

Heavy falls of snow, such as we frequently have 
in the northern parts of the country, sometimes do 
great injury. As it melts in the spring, it breaks 
down the spreading limbs, and makes most unsightly 
wounds. In such localities, those varieties which 
naturally produce such limbs should be avoided; 
or, if cultivated, the branches should not be allowed 
to start from the trunk lower than the average 
height of snow during the winter. 



VIOLENT WINDS. 33 

3. Severe winds are often followed by most dis- 
astrous results. Trees are broken down, and fre- 
quently torn out of the ground by the roots, when 
exposed to its full power upon an unprotected plain. 
This is one of the most serious difficulties of fruit- 
growing upon some of the prairie lands of the West, 
but one which is easily overcome. Belts of pines, 
or other evergreens, planted at the most exposed 
point, will in a great measure prevent injury. In 
more hilly districts the strong winds may not be 
from the west ; currents draw through the valleys, 
and the shields must be placed at the point of ex- 
posure. In early summer, when the tree has just 
started its young growth, a more than ordinary wind 
will so whip these young shoots against each other 
as to change the whole appearance of the orchard 
in a very short time : when, a few hours before, each 
tree was beautifully green, now all of the young 
leaves upon the ends of the shoots have become 
bruised, black, and dead. The tree will soon recover 
from the injury; but the rapid elaboration of the 
sap has been checked, and much growth lost. 

In the vicinity of Boston there prevails annually 
a severe northwest wind, about the twentieth of 
September, which strips from the trees hundreds of 
bushels of fruit. This injury might be prevented, 
in a great measure, by proper shelter. 

Positions where the air is stagnant should be also 
carefully avoided. The atmosphere contains a cer- 



^ 



34 A STAGNANT AIR. 

tain proportion of carbonic acid, which is the chief 
source of the carbon of plants, constituting the 
greater part of their wood. This is received by the 
plant not only through the roots, but by means of 
all the green portions of the tree. If the air was 
not in circulation, it can readily be imagined that 
this gas would be more or less exhausted in that 
part of the atmosphere which immediately surrounds 
the plant, and that the tissue would consequently 
be pithy and soft. Therefore we can discern the 
use, in the great system of Nature, of those gentle 
breezes which so lightly rustle the foliage, and sup- 
ply to the most minute leaf its proper share of this 
great element of life. The stagnation of the air, 
together with electrical influences, we shall discover, 
when we investigate the diseases of fruit-bearing 
plants, to be the probable causes of the American 
pear-blight. 

4. Aqueous va/por. Not only does the air contain 
carbonic acid with hydrogen and oxygen, but aqueous 
vapor, which affects plants powerfully. The first 
three constituents form the primary elements of the 
bodies of both animals and plants ; these, by their 
death and decay, restore the gases to their original 
condition ; but the rapidity of these phenomena is 
regulated, in a great measure, by the presence of 
w^atery vapor. Its quantity varies with the locality 
and the season of the year. Its absence would cause 



DEW AND FROST 35 

sterility. If the atmosphere in the African deserts 
could be saturated with moisture, they would be- 
come as verdant as any other portion of the earth. 

The amount of moisture, or water, which the at- 
mosphere is capable of containing, to become fully 
charged, varies with the degree of temperature. If 
it is eighty degrees Fahrenheit, it will contain ten 
grains to the cubic foot ; if it be twenty degrees 
Fahrenheit, the amount of vapor would be little 
more than one or one and a half grains. Such being 
the case, a sudden fall of the temperature would re- 
sult in the precipitation of the superfluous moisture. 
The diurnal depression of the thermometer is fol- 
lowed by dew, in consequence ; or, when cold enough 
to freeze, by hoar-frost, which is merely frozen dew. 
Every one is aware of the clearness of the air in the 
winter, because its low degree of temperature does 
not allow it to absorb much aqueous vapor. When 
the air becomes heated in the spring, evaporation 
goes on very rapidly to supply the deficiency in the 
atmosphere, and thus nature dries up the soil. 

The vapors contained in the atmosphere, and its 
reluctance to part with heat, are among the reasons 
why, in our latitude, the temperature does not sink 
to the freezing-point every night. Late frosts in 
the spring are not so injurious to vegetation on the 
coast as inland, because^ when the sun is up, and 
the temperature begins to rise, a fine mist immedi- 
ately ascends to supply the want of the atmosphere, 



36 HEAT. 

and thus shades the plant from the otherwise de- 
structive rays of the sun. 

5. Heat is an important stimulus to vegetable 
life. The functions of most plants cannot be per- 
formed without a certain degree of this agent. The 
more rapidly the tree is growing, the more is it de- 
pendent on the maintenance of a high temperature. 
The requisite degree, however, differs widely with 
the species, or even variety. Mr. Lymburn speaks 
of a plant of Marchantia which was growing in a hot 
spring on the island of Amsterdam, where the water 
was above the boiling-point; while, on the other 
hand, the curious Protococcus nivalis adorns the polar 
regions, where the frost scarcely gives way under 
the heat of midsummer : and yet this plant spreads 
over vast plains, and illumines them as if by crimson 
snow. 

A high degree of heat is generally favorable to 
the growth of fruit, if it be not accompanied with 
drought. By the management of artificial heat, 
gardeners make plants perform curious freaks. Sir 
Thomas A. Knight caused melons and cucumbers to 
produce all male blossoms in excessive heat, and all 
female in a low temperature. Heat stimulates evap- 
oration from the leaves, and therefore excites the 
roots to absorb nourishment from the soil. With 
the aid of light it paints the colors upon the fruit, 
which show that the saccharine fermentation has 
been well performed. 



LIMITS OF THE VINE. 37 

It is often noticed that the sweetest fruits are 
nearest to the ground, because they obtain a greater 
amount of heat by its radiation from the earth. Mr. 
Murray, of England, proved that this was very dif- 
ferent on the side of a hill from what it was in the 
valley. In one case the thermometer was thirty de- 
grees higher on the inclined surface than in the 
plain. He states that upon the plains of Piedmont, 
in Italy, the vignerons are obliged to detach their 
vines from the poles, and cover them during the 
winter, to prevent injury ; while on the acclivities 
which surround the city of Genoa, the pomegrans^te, 
the lemon, and the orange, flourish. 

The principles of radiation were understood in 
very ancient times. In the land of Judea the vine- 
yards and orchards were often planted upon terraces, 
to acquire additional heat. 

In Europe they fixed the limits of the vine by the 
mean temperature of the summer months. The 
least mean degree required for the ripening of grapes 
suitably for wine is sixty-seven degrees. Boussin- 
gault thus states the eflects of the temperature upjon 
the quantity and quality of wine produced.^ (See 
Table A, next page.) 

" In 1833 and 1837, the wines were scarcely 
drinkable. A summer whose mean temperature is 
below sixty-seven degrees will not produce valuable 
wine." 

1 Blodgett's Climatology, p. 439. 

4 



38 



COLD. 



TABLE A. 



Years. 


Mean 

Temperature 

of whole 

Time of Growth. 


Mean 

Temperature 

of 

Summer. 


Gallons 

of 

Wine per Acre. 


Per-centage 

of 

Alcohol. 


1833 


584 




63.1 


311 


5.0 


1834 


63.1 


68.5 


413 


11.2 


1835 


60.4 


67.0 


625 


8.1 


1836 


60.4 


71.0 


544 


7.1 


1837 


59.3 


66.0 


184 


7.7 



Mr. Blodgett gives an excellent table of the tem- 
perature of the principal wine districts of this 
country. (See Table B. p. 39.) 



6. It has been shown that heat is a great stim- 
ulus to vegetable life. Cold, on the other hand, 
diminishes the activity of plants. At certain sea- 
sons of the year a sudden fall in the temperature 
produces in some kinds of vegetation disease and 
death. If a frost occurs late in the spring, when 
all the organs of the tree are performing their w^ork 
with great rapidity, the leaves and all those soft 
parts which are filled with fluid become black and 
stained, and lose their vitality. The green portions 
of a tree are made up of cells, whose membraneous 
walls are very thin. On the contrary, those of the 
wood are very thick ; but this varies according 
to their age. When the juice contained in the 
former, or young cells, has become frozen, it ex- 



TEMPERATURE. 



39 



O 

a 

H 

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02 

Q 

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Baltimore, Md. 
Scuppernong, N. C. 
Chapel Hill, N. C. 
Camden, 'S.C 
Sparta, Ga. 
Huntsville, Ala. 
San Antonio, Tex. 
Nashville, Tenn. 
Cincinnati, 0. 
Cleveland, 0. 
Oberlin, 0. 
Ann Arbor, Mich. 
Battle Creek, Mich. 
New Harmony, Ind. 
Highland, 111. 
St. Louis, Mo. 
Fort Madison, Iowa. 
Fort Arbuckle. 
Albuquerque, N. M. 
El Paso, N. M. 
Rancho del Chino, Cal. 


o 




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Baltimore, Md., . . . 
Scuppernong, N. C, . 
Chapel Hill, N. C, . . 
Camden, S.C, . . . 
Sparta, Ga., .... 
Huntsville, Ala., . . . 
San Antonio, Tex., . . 
Nashville, Tenn., . . 
Cincinnati, 0., . . . 
Cleveland, 0., . . . . 
Oberlin, 0., . . . . 
Ann Arbor, Mich., . . 
Battle Creek, Mich., . 
New Harmony, Ind., . 
Highland, 111., . . . 
St. Louis, Mo., . . . 
Fort Madison, Iowa, . 
Fort Arbuckle, . . . 
Albuquerque, N. M., . 
ElPaso, N.M., . . . 
Rancho del Chino, Cal., 



40 FREEZING THE SAP. 

paiids the slight walls until they are unable longer 
to withstand the pressure, and burst. When their 
temperature is restored, the sap, of course, runs out 
among the tissues of the wood, and its nutritive 
action is lost. As the injury done by freezing is 
thus not made manifest until the heat is restored, it 
has often been thought that it was in the thawing 
that the leaf was destroyed. It is no doubt true 
that by shading from the sun, or by washing with 
water, these organs are sometimes enabled to bear 
the immense damage which they have sustained, 
and to recuperate their energies, through the action 
of those parts which have not been injured ; but 
the harm is accomplished before it becomes evident 
to the casual observer. 

A low degree of temperature, even though it be 
not at the freezing-point, is injurious to plants, as 
it causes stagnation of the sap, in which case fungi 
are liable to attack their tissue. Severe cold during 
the^winter is generally not productive of injury, be- 
cause these membraneous walls have then become 
thickened by layers of woody fibre, and have greater 
resistive force ; the flow of sap also being then so 
much less, the danger to the tree from its expansion 
by freezing is lessened. Steady cold weather during 
the winter is beneficial to vegetation. Many tender 
plants will endure our climate if protected from the 
sun, which defends them from these variations in 
temperature. This is the principle which should 



MILD WINTERS. 41 

be followed in covering all half-hardy trees or 
shrubs. It is not necessary to shield them from 
the cold, which one would judge was the object 
from the immense bundles of straw with which many 
such plants are surrounded, but to shade them so 
as to prevent those sudden changes, from heat to 
extreme cold, which destroy the tissue. 

Mild winters are those most destructive to vege- 
tation, as they are generally characterized by great 
reverses of temperature. A writer says : ^ " We 
speak of one year as warmer or colder than another; 
but it is a wonderful example of unchanging law, 
that they seldom differ materially in the mean tem- 
perature of the year. That of London is fifty de- 
grees, four minutes ; and, however hot or cold the 
seasons were, it did not cause the average of the 
year to vary more than one-half a degree ; and this 
was probably owing to the imperfection of our im- 
plements." 

A warm summer is very beneficial to vegetation, 
because, as we have already seen, a constant high 
temperature at that time stimulates their vital en- 
ergies. But as the mean of every year is nearly the 
same, in order to have a warm summer the preced- 
ing winter must have been cold. Sometimes, how- 
ever, the heat following a cold winter seems to be 
misplaced, either by an unusually warm spring or 
autumn, which produces the mean, even though the 

^ Loudon's Gardeners' Magazine, VoL XVII. p. 147. 

4* 



42 LIGHT. 

temperature of the summer should be moderate. 
Thus the seasons following a cold winter are the 
golden ones for the fruit-grower. 

7. The eifect of electricity may be considered in 
treating of the causes of American pear-blight. 

8. Light is another essential requirement of 
vegetation. It has a great influence in maturing 
the wood of the plant. In places where it is absent 
the foliage becomes sickly, and a poor, unripe 
growth is the consequence. It affects not only the 
growth of the tree, but also the quantity and quality 
of the fruit. A writer -^ in the Gardeners' Chronicle 
says: "I send you a few peaches, taken from a tree 
which was brought to this garden as a nursery-plant 
in 1832; the following winter it was planted w^here 
it now stands, the wall and border being both new. 
For the first ten years I do not recollect that it 
ever bore a fruit, owing to a large sycamore which 
overshadowed the wall where it stood. The tree 
being an object visible from various parts of the 
premises, my master felt the greatest reluctance to 
take it down ; but about ten years ago he consented 
to remove it, and since that time the peach tree, 
which had never before that carried a single fruit, 
has rewarded us with a fine crop every year. The 
number this year upon the tree was thirty dozens ; 

1 John Povey, Thorneycroft H«all, England. 



CHEMICAL RAYS. 43 

in 1851, thirty-three dozens; and in 1850, thirty 
dozens." 

The rays of the sun possess certain chemical 
properties which produce saccharine fermentation 
in the fruit. Every one who eats it knows how 
much superior the flavor is of those which have 
been beautifully colored to others of the same va- 
riety which are green. In no sort is this difference 
more strongly marked than in the Vicar of Wink- 
field's pear. Those which are colored ripen easily, 
their flavor is very good, while in the remainder 
the saccharine fermentation has never commenced, 
and they are only fit for culinary purposes. When 
we examine the best system of pruning, we shall see 
that the most successful cultivators have adopted 
those plans which give abundant opportunity for 
the rays of the sun to reach every fruit. 

Not only does the light of the sun influence veg- 
etable growth, but that of the moon affects them 
more than might be expected. It is well known 
that during the day the leaves are constantly de- 
composing the water contained in their sap, and 
setting free the oxygen, while they store up the 
carbon. In the night this function ceases : the 
oxygen is slowly absorbed, and carbonic acid evolved. 
Therefore, in the morning the plant must first re- 
place the carbon which was lost during the night 
before it can grow. 

According to Professor Zantedeschi, in moonlight 



44 SUMMIT OF HILLS. 

nights this loss of carbon is not only prevented, but 
carbonic acid is slowly acquired. He placed several 
plants, which were in full growth, w^here they would 
receive no light, and at the rise of the moon he 
exposed a part of them to its rays. These kept 
their green color and healthy appearance, while the 
others perished. He states that this influence of 
the moon, if true, is probably the cause of the in- 
creased growth of plants during the full of the 
moon, which has been noticed by some naturalists. 

The meteorological phenomena which influence 
the growth and productiveness of fruit-bearing 
plants have now been considered, and it remains for 
us to name those fruits which are adapted to the 
different exposures. 

The summit of hills cannot easily be protected from 
severe winds in the manner which was suggested 
,upon plains, but must be more or less subject to 
them. Therefore, in the selection of fruits for such 
a position, those should be chosen which hold fast 
to the tree. The Flemish Beauty pear is notorious 
for the ease with which it separates from the spur. 
If we examine for the cause, we find that all those 
large pears which have slender stems, drop easily ; 
the wind swings them, the stem breaks, and the 
fruit falls. This style of stem is more generally 
found in the Bergamo ttes, as in figure 1. Where 
the stem is thick and fleshy, and especially if it has 




NORTHERN EXPOSURE. 45 

a lip on one side, as at (A) in figure 2, it will be 
likely to maintain its hold. Among 
those pears which are most reliable 
upon such a site, may be named, 
the Bartlett, the Beurre d' Anjou, 
the Beurre Bosc, the Merriam, the 
Nouveau Poiteau, the Onondaga, the 
Glout Morceau, and the Vicar of 
Winkfield. Such an exposure is de- 
sirable for the cherry, and most par- 
tially tender fruits, because they must 
have abundant air to ripen their shoots. All of 
the small fruits will succeed admirably. 

Northern exposure is best adapted to the most 
tender species, because it is comparatively free from 
those vicissitudes of temperature Avhich are found 
on a southern slope. It is a well-known fact that 
where ivies and rhododendrons will perish during 
the first winter in which they are exposed on the 
southern or eastern side of a building or declivity, 
they flourish often for years on the northen. 

If we examine closely the bud of a hardy tree dur- 
ing the winter, we shall discover that it consists of 
many layers of minute leaves, and that the whole is 
covered with a coat of scales that is lined with a 
thick pubescence, which acts as a non-conductor of 
heat. This is generally true of the buds of all trees 
of a cold climate. Consequently they require regular 



46 NORTHERN EXPOSURE. 

heat for a long time to bring them forth from their 
dormant state. Thus it will be seen that such spe- 
cies as possess this quality will not be subject to 
injury during the warm days of winter. Those 
fruits, however, which are indigenous to a more 
tropical clime, do not possess these outer scales, and 
therefore a few warm days bring them immediately 
into blossom. Even if they do not fully open their 
petals, the heat has started the sap and irritated the 
bud, and a sudden fall of temperature will kill the 
tender germ. Such are the peach, apricot, and 
nectarine. 

This is not only a property of species, but is more 
or less modified in varieties. Nature does not be- 
stow her gifts unnecessarily. A variety which 
originates where such protection would not be re- 
quired, has this property so modified as to render it 
tender in severer latitudes. Therefore native va- 
rieties of fruit are generally better adapted to culti- 
vation, and freer from disease, than those of foreign 
origin. 

On a northern or northwestern exposure, these 
tender species or varieties remain frozen during the 
whole winter, and do not start in the spring until 
all danger from severe frost is past. 

When we desire to extend the time of maturity 
in a variety, it should be planted on such a site ; 
while to hasten it, the opposite exposure should be 
chosen. Grapes should not be planted on a slope to 



SOUTHERN EXPOSURE. 47 

the north, as they require the direct rays of the sun 
to bring them to sufficient maturity to produce 
wine, and the cold temperature of the north would 
delay this until the early frosts of autumn would 
have prevented it. 

Southern exposure. This is much more liable to 
extremes than the northern. All except the most 
hardy fruits will be affected injuriously by the 
thaws of winter. But those which do successfully 
baffle with these hardships produce the most lus- 
cious specimens, as the power of the sun is greater 
here, and the saccharine fermentation proceeds 
with vigor. On this exposure the amateur would 
not think of planting any but the most hardy va- 
rieties. There are some fruits, such as the grape, 
which flourish on a southern slope. There they 
receive a greater degree of heat, and their maturity 
is therefore hastened before the early frosts of au- 
tumn. In such a case the cold does not injure 
them, because they contain so much sugar, while it 
destroys those which are immature. The air is 
dryer, too, and they are not so subject to mildew 
and other diseases. 

The cultivation of fruit in low valleys is accom- 
panied with great risk ; while it is superior to all 
others in beauty, yet the succulent growth conse- 
quent upon a stagnation of the air, and a partial 
exhaustion of its carbonic acid, renders the wood 



48 LOW VALLEYS. 

liable to be killed during the winter. Generally 
these should be avoided; but in the hands of a 
skilful cultivator, with a judicious selection of va- 
rieties and proper pruning, the result may be more 
favorable. 



CHAPTER II. 

ORIGm AND PROPERTIES OF SOILS. 

SOILS THE RESULT OF DISINTEGRATION — CAUSES STATED BY SIR H. DAVY 

BOUSSINGAULT — HITCHCOCK — ALLUVIAL AGENCIES. PROPERTIES : 

SPECIFIC GRAVITY — AFFINITY FOR MOISTURE — ABSORPTION OF MOIS- 
TURE FROM THE AIR — CAPILLARY ATTRACTION — STATE OF DIVISION 
— COHESION AND ADHESION — ABSORPTION OF GASES FROM THE AT- 
MOSPHERE — ABSORPTION AND RETENTION OF HEAT. 

^HE earth presents a great diversity of soils, 
upon which widely different kinds of plants 
flourish, each adapted to some peculiar genus, 
species, or variety of plant in the vegetable king- 
dom. The failure of one orchard, while another, 
receiving the same treatment, succeeds, evinces the 
necessity of a proper selection of the land for the 
growth of fruit. 

" All soils are the result of the disintegration and 
decomposition of rocks, with the addition of saline 
and decayed vegetable and animal substances." The 
materials derived from the rocks constitute by far 
the larger part, and therefore by an examination of 
these we can form an idea of the composition of the 
soil produced from them. Soils may be almost 
wholly composed of disintegrated rocks, in which 
5 



50 MIXED EARTHS. 

case the ingredients of the earth which result from 
them will maintain their original character ; but 
if these are decomposed, their relations may be 
changed. Soils do not always contain those sub- 
stances alone which are found in the rocks of their 
immediate neighborhood, for by the action of dilu- 
vial currents the loose matter of different rocks is 
frequently intermingled, while sometimes the foreign 
entirely covers the native material. Alluvial land 
is formed by the deposits of streams, and has in its 
composition the substances inherent in the various 
rocks through which it has passed. Peaty soils are 
mostly the result of the decay of vegetable matter, 
and have but little of the components found in the 
original rocks. The fertility of soils depends in a 
great measure upon its admixture and subdivision. 
An earth, if it may be properly so called, composed 
entirely of pebbles, would not support vegetation. 
Coarse sand may be knit together by the roots of a 
few plants, but in a fine state of division and de- 
composition it can nourish almost any plant. The 
benefit resulting from the mixture of soils is shown 
by the fact that those lands formed from the decom- 
position of conglomerate rock are very fertile. Dr. 
Hitchcock, in his " Geological Survey of Massachu- 
setts," says that soils consist, " first, of their earthy 
and metallic ingredients, which are mostly silicates ; 
secondly, the acids, alkalies, and salts which existed 
originally in them, or are introduced by cultivation ; 



ORGANIC REMAINS. 51 

and thirdly, of the water and organic matter which 
they contain. The latter constitutes the principal 
nourishment of plants derived from the soil, while 
the salts are necessary to prepare that nourishment 
to be taken up and assimilated by their delicate 
vessels. The earth serves as a basis of support for 
the plant, as a receptacle for the nourishment, and 
probably also, in connection with the roots, as a gal- 
vanic combination for the development of those 
electrical agencies by which the food of plants is 
taken up and converted into vegetable matter. 
Soils, to be fertile, should contain silica, allumina, X^ 
and lime, and should be in a good state of sub- 
division, as this has much influence on the reten- 
tion of moisture. The proportion of earthy ma- 
terials is not of so much importance^ if they are 
only present, because the amount consumed is so 
small compared with the humic acid, or organic 
remains. Dr. Dana aptly says that the earths are 
the plates, the salts the seasoning, and the geine (or 
humic acid) the food of plants." Cultivation does 
not materially alter the natural composition of the 
earths, but it modifies its salts and humic acids. 
Plants cannot flourish without this latter element. 
Alluvial and sandy diluvial contain the least of it, 
and should therefore be supplied with iianure ; the 
crops then gathered may be even larger than those . 
from a soil in which it naturally exists, because 
such lands, being porous, the atmosphere is able to 



52 PEAT. 

penetrate and prepare the whole of it for the nour- 
ishment of plants. The amount possessed will not 
necessarily effect the first crop; but it may soon 
become so exhausted that it will not produce another. 
^ Upon the amount of humic acid which is contained 
in the soil will depend the length of time in which 
it will continue to produce good crops. 

Humus, by absorbing oxygen from the atmosphere, 
is able to furnish the plant with carbonic acid, 
which is thus produced, and also with oxygen. 
"While there are soils which are unfertile from want 
of humus, yet this element, which exists in such 
vast quantities in the peaty deposits of swamps, 
would, if mixed with them, render all such fertile. 
Dr. Dana says that " the fact that peat, or turf, is 
very soluble in alkali, seems not to be known among 
our farmers. The usual practice of mixing lime 
with peat is decidedly the worst which can be fol- 
lowed, as the geine, which forms the largest part 
of peat bogs, forms with lime a compound which 
is very insoluble. With allumina geine forms a 
compound still more insoluble than with lime ; and 
though the vegetable matters in combination with 
these earthy bases are actually absorbed by the roots 
of growing plants-, still the geine is in a state much 
less favorable than when in combination with al- 
kali. If we mix the lye of wood ashes with peat, 
we form a dark-brown vegetable solution ; the al- 
kaline properties are completely neutralized by the 



GALVANIC AGENCY. 53 

geine, and very often ammonia escapes from turf 
when treated with caustic alkali." 

Professor Schubler says that pure earths, such 
as sand, lime, magnesia, and gypsum, when dry, are 
nonconductors of electricity, and that clays are also 
imperfect conductors. When oblong pieces of all 
the earths are scraped with a knife, they develop 
negative electricity. Experiments show that when 
solutions of humus are exposed to a current of gal- 
vanic electricity decomposition immediately ensues ; 
the geine collects about the positive pole, and the 
earths around the negative. Dr. Dana supposed 
that by means of this galvanic agency the rootlets 
of plants were enabled to attract alkali even from 
the particles of felspar and mica in the soil, while 
it was yet in an insoluble condition. If this is true, 
it would depend, says Dr. Hitchcock, to a consider- 
able extent, on the subdivision of its particles. If 
this be allowed, the presence of alkali in a soluble 
condition in the soil is not important when the 
rocks are present which contain it in an insolu- 
ble state, as the rootlets will supply themselves 
from this source. This may be another of the 
wonderful provisions of Providence for the well- 
being of the plant, because of the liability of the 
soluble alkalies to be washed away by rains, while 
in their original condition these little rootlets alone 
contain the key to their treasures. 

Earths are composed of different substances, be- 



54 CHEMICAL DISINTEGRATION. 

cause the rocks of which they are the particles are 
so various. Thus the stratum may have been of 
sandstone, when the soil produced will of course 
be sandy ; if of limestone, then the calcareous ele- 
ment will prevail ; if of slate, then clay. The min- 
erals which are generally found in the rocks are 
quartz, felspar, mica, amphibolite, pyroxenite, talc, 
serpentine, and diallage. These, according to 
Boussingault, are formed of metals which enter into 
the structure of plants. Thus quartz is almost 
pure silica, or sand. 

Sir Humphrey Davy observed, with regard to the 
chemical causes of disintegration : " The manner in 
which rocks are converted into soil may be easily 
conceived by referring to the instance of soft or 
porcelain granite. This substance consists of three 
mgredients — quartz, felspar, and mica. The quartz 
is almost pure silicious earth in a crystalline form. 
The felspar and mica are very compounded sub- 
stances ; both contain silica, allumina, and oxide 
of iron. In the felspar there is usually found lime 
and potassa ; in the mica, lime and magnesia. 
When a granite rock of this kind has been exposed 
to the influence of air and water, the lime and po- 
tassa contained in its constituent parts are acted 
upon by water, or carbonic acid ; and the oxide of 
iron, which is generally in its least oxidized state, 
tends to combine with more oxygen. The conse- 
quence is that the felspar decomposes, and also the 



MECHANICAL CAUSES. 55 

mica; the first the most rapidly. The felspar, which 
is the cement of the stone, forms a fine clay ; the 
mica, partially decomposed, mixes with it as sand ; 
and the undecomposed quartz appears as gravel or 
sand of different degrees of fineness. As soon as 
the smallest layer of earth is formed on the surface 
of a rock, the seeds of lichens, mosses, and other 
imperfect vegetables, which are constantly floating 
in the atmosphere, and which have made it their 
resting-place, begin to vegetate ; their death, de- 
composition, and decay afford a certain quantity of 
organizable matter, which mixes with the earthy 
material of the rocks. In this improved soil those 
perfect plants are capable of subsisting. These in 
their turn absorb nourishment from water and- the 
atmosphere, and, after perishing, afford new ma- 
terial to that already provided. The decomposition 
of the rocks still continues; and at length, by such 
a slow and gradual process, a soil is formed in which 
even forest trees can fix their roots, and which is 
fitted to reward the labors of the cultivator." 

Boussingault thus gives the mechanical causes 
efi'ecting segregation. ^' Water, by reason of its 
fluidity, penetrates the masses of rocks that are at 
all porous, and filters into their fissures. If the 
temperature now falls, and the water congeals, it 
separates by its dilatation the molecules of the 
minerals from one another, destroys their cohesion, 
produces clefts, and slowly reduces the hardest 



56 WATER. 

rocks, first to fragments, then to powder. During its 
frozen state, the ice may serve as a cement, and hold 
together the disintegrated particles; but with a 
thaw, the slightest force, currents of water, or the 
effect of weight, suffices to carry the fragments to 
the bottom of the valley ; and the rubbing and 
motion to which these are exposed in torrents, tend 
to break them still smaller, and reduce them to 
sand." 

It is well known that water, by an apparent ex- 
ception to a general law, expands with great force 
when freezing. Over a large extent of surface the 
eifect may be very considerable, and when boulder- 
stones lying in shallow ponds become partially 
enveloped in the ice, they must feel the effects of 
this expansion, and be driven toward the shore; 
since the force must always act in that direction. 
As nothing exists to bring back the rock to its orig- 
inal position, the ultimate effect must be to crowd 
it entirely out of the water ; and perhaps to this 
cause we may impute the fact, that on the margin 
of some ponds we find a ridge of boulders, while 
the bottom, to a considerable extent, is free from 
them.-^ 

" There is, however, one agent of excavation that 
still operates to some extent, and this is called ice- 
floods. Their effect is most powerful upon the 
smaller and more rapid streams. Whoever has not 

1 Geological Survey of Massachusetts, by Dr. Hitchcock. 



ICE-FLOODS. 57 

witnessed the breaking up of a river in the spring 
after a severe winter, when its whole surface has 
been covered by ice several feet thick, has but a 
faint idea of the prodigious force exerted at such a 
time. The ice high up the stream is usually first 
broken in pieces by the swollen waters. Large 
masses are thus thrown up edgewise, and forced 
underneath the unbroken sheet, and the whole bed 
of the river is blocked up — perhaps, too, where the 
banks are high and rocky. The water accumulates 
behind the obstruction until the resistance is over- 
come, and the huge mass of water and ice urges on 
its way, crushing and jamming together that which 
it meets, and thus gaining new strength at every 
step. Often for miles the stream, prodigiously 
swollen, is literally crammed with ice, so that the 
water disappears, and a slowly-moving column of 
ice is all that is seen. This presses with such force 
upon the bottom and sides of the river-bed as to 
cause the earth to tremble, with a sound like heavy 
thunder, for a distance of miles. Sometimes the 
body of ice becomes so large, and the friction so 
great, that the waters are unable to keep it in mo- 
tion, and it stops, while the river is turned out of its 
channel, and is compelled to flow in a new bed for 
weeks and even months." 

This cause has a wonderful efl'ect in excavating 
the beds of rivers. It sometimes tears up great 
rocks, and pushes them for a considerable distance. 



58 ALLUVIAL AGENCIES. 

Dr. Hitchcock divides the deposits from diluvial 
currents into " first, boulder-stones, formed gener- 
ally of the least yielding rocks ; second, gravel or 
sand mixed, or the more yielding rocks ; third, beds 
of clay ; fourth, consolidated sand and pebbles ; and 
fifth, beds of sand. The depositions are generally 
horizontal, although some of them dip a little, and 
lay according to the degree of their pulverization. 
Sometimes, by an action which appears to have been 
lateral pressure, the strata becomes somewhat con- 
torted. 

" From alluvial agencies are produced — 

" 1. Soil, or disintegrated and decomposed rock, 
with such an admixture of vegetable and animal 
matter as will support the growth of plants. 

" 2. Those vast accumulations of smid which are 
found in the beds of the ocean and of lakes, and 
which, when driven upon the land by the wind, are 
called doivns. These are constantly shifting, and 
are destitute wholly of organic matter, and are 
therefore entirely barren. 

" 3. Peat. This consists almost wholly of organic 
remains, which are deposited by the death of plants. 
It is a powder when dry. These beds occur only in 
the temperate zones. 

" 4. Alluvial marl. This varies somewhat in 
composition, but consists of carbonate of lime, clay, 
and soluble and insoluble geine. It often lies be- 



DEPOSITS BY RIVERS. 59 

low peat in limestone countries, and is sometimes 
found at the bottom of ponds. 

"5. Calcareous tufa^ or travertine. This is a de- 
posit of the carbonate of lime from springs, and 
forms a substance like stalactites. 

" 6. Coral reefs, 

" 7. Silicious sinter^ which is a deposit of silica 
from thermal springs. 

" 8. Silicious marl^ much resembling calcareous 
marl, but composed almost entirely of silica, de- 
posited from the skeletons of minute infusoria, which 
at death sink to the bottom of the pond. 

" 9. Bitumen^ deposited from springs in the form 
of naphtha and asphaltum. 

" 10. Sulphate of lime, very rarely deposited by 
springs. 

"11. Hydrate of iron. 

" 12. Hydrate of manganese. 

"13. Chloride of sodium. 

"14. Sandstones, cony lomerates, and breccias. Sand 
cemented, is called sandstone ; when it contains 
rounded pebbles, it is said to be conglomerate ; and 
when it has angular fragments, it is called breccia." 

The substance deposited by rivers differs with 
the distance from the mouth. "When it comes forth 
from the mountain, coarse stones and boulders are 
rolled along, the finer materials are carried further, 
and the finest are found near the mouth of the 
stream. Alluvial deposits are made from currents 



60 ALLUVIUM. 

of the ocean. Alluvium is formed upon marshes, 
near the coast, by the decay of vegetation, by ma- 
terial retained after the flow of the tide, and by 
that deposited by streams. In northern latitudes, 
peat is thus formed. In the muddy deposit at the 
bottom of lakes, ponds, or inlets, aquatic plants 
begin to flourish, and by their decay increase the 
depth of the deposits ; at last it reaches the surface 
of the water, and becomes a marsh. The top of 
this deposit is composed of vegetable fibre hardly 
decomposed at all, and from this is a regular grada- 
tion to perfectly-formed peat in the lower strata. 

Dr. James E. De Kay, Zoologist for the State of 
New York, says : " In a calm, still day I have fre- 
quently noticed the surface of the water covered 
with patches of sand, varying in extent from one to 
six or eight inches square. These patches are com- 
posed, of course, only of the finer portions of sand, 
adhering to each other by a thin film of gelatinous 
matter, which gives buoyancy to the mass. I have 
been surrounded frequently by patches of this kind 
in tolerably close contact, and covering a surface of 
several hundred acres. The lightest touch of an 
oar, or a slight breeze, causes them to sink immedi- 
*ately. The rationale of their formation I conceive 
to be this : the shore we know to be peopled with 
myriads of minute moUusca, furnishing, either by 
their excrements or their own proper bodies, a 
gelatinous substance, which hardens upon exposure 



ALLUVIUM. . 61 

to the sun, and forms a crust including the subja- 
cent sand. In this state the water comes in quietly, 
detaches successive portions of this crust, in large 
or smaller pieces, which are borne away by the 
retreating tide. May not this silent and hitherto 
unnoticed transportation counteract, to a certain 
extent, the operation of other known agents ? It 
is not philosophical, I admit, to impute important 
effects to slight and apparently inadequate causes ; 
but it is equally unphilosophical to neglect trifling 
phenomena until the nature and extent of their 
agency has been thoroughly investigated." 

Boussingault says : " The final result of the dis- 
integration of rocks, and of the decomposition of 
those minerals which enter into their constitution, 
is the formation of those alluvia which occupy 
the slopes of mountains that are not too steep, the 
bottoms of valleys, and the most extensive plains. 
These deposits, however formed, — whether of stones, 
pebbles, gravel, sand, or clay, — may become the basis 
of a vegetable soil, if they are only sufficiently loose 
and moist. Vegetation of any kind succeeds upon 
them at first with difiiculty. Plants, which by their 
nature live in a great measure at the expense of the 
atmosphere, and which ask from the earth little or 
nothing more than a support, fix themselves there 
when the climate permits. Cactuses and fleshy 
plants take root in sands ; mimosas, the brocua, the 
furze, and others, show themselves upon gravels. 
6 



62 DEBRIS. 

These plants grow, and after their death, either in 
part or wholly, leave a debris which becomes profit- 
able to succeeding generations of vegetables. Or- 
ganic matter accumulates in the course of ages, 
even in the most ungrateful soils, in this way, and 
by these repeated additions they become less and 
less sterile. It is probable that the virgin forests of 
the New World have thus supplied the wonderful 
quantity of vegetable mould in which the present 
generation of trees is rooted. At Larega de Supia, 
in South America, the slipping of a porphyritic 
mountain covered completely with its debris^ to the 
extent of nearly half a league, the rich plantations 
of sugar-cane which were there established. Ten 
years afterwards I saw the blocks of porphyry shad- 
owed by thick groves of mimosas ; and the time, 
perchance, is not very remote when this new forest 
will be cleared away, and the strong soil, enriched 
with its spoils, will be restored to the husbandman. 
" The chemical composition of the earth adapted 
for vegetation must of course participate in the 
nature of the rocks and substrata from which it was 
derived ; and the elements which enter into the 
constitution of mineral species ought to be found 
in the soils, which, by the effect of time or human 
industry, may serve for the reproduction of vegeta- 
bles. It is on this account that it becomes inter- 
esting to study the composition of the minerals, 
which are the most abundantly dispersed in the 
solid mass of the globe." 



CRIBIBLING OF KOCKS. 63 

Professor Stockhardt says of the weathering and 
decay of rocks, that the crumblmg of rock mto 
earth still continues, and renders it capable of be- 
coming and remaining a supporter and sustainer of 
vegetable growth. The principle on which it acts 
may be thus described : 

" Through the alternations of heat and cold, cracks 
and fissures are formed in the most solid rocks ; 
with the assistance of air and water, these are deep- 
ened and widened, and separate fragments are de- 
tached from their connection with the great mass. 
Through the same alternations of temperature a 
daily circulation of air is produced in the porous 
soil. Moreover, all chemical processes go on more 
rapidly and energetically at a high temperature 
than at a low ; therefore, the warmer a soil is, the 
more rapidly will weathering and decomposition 
proceed in it. 

" Aii\ in union with the watery vapor always 
present in it, afi'ords oxygen, or water, to all bodies 
which have a tendency to combine with these sub- 
stances. The particles of iron (protoxide), which 
scarcely any rock is without, make use of it, and 
become converted into iron-rust, which does not 
possess a fixing or binding power, like the protoxide 
of iron, and therefore no longer ofi"ers any obstacle 
to its disintegration. The fact that all rocks which 
are traversed by a yellow vein of iron-rust may be 
split or broken readily, demonstrates this clearly. 



64 DISINTEGRATION. 

The avidity with which organic substances, whether 
derived from dead plants or animals, absorb oxygen, 
is still greater than that of iron. The breaking 
down, decay, gradual solution, and disappearance of 
these, is caused principally by air ; for decomposi- 
tion consists of a constant absorption of oxygen, 
which forms with the elements of these organic 
substances new, soluble, and volatile compounds, 
which, where vegetation abounds, are in great part 
absorbed by the roots and foliage ; otherwise they 
are lost by evaporation. Air in motion, as in winds 
or storms, may also, by its mechanical power, di- 
rectly or indirectly promote the cracking or loos- 
ening of the earth, as also the circulation of air in 
the soil, by its pressure on the crown of a tree, thus 
exercising a leverage on the roots." 

We have before stated that it was unsafe to judge 
wholly of the nature of the soil by the rocks which 
underlie it, on account of the numerous chemical 
and mechanical agencies which are at work in their 
disintegration, decomposition, and mixture. If the 
surface of the earth was a vast level, the substratum 
of rock would be a more correct index to the nature 
of the soil ; but such a condition of things would 
be decidedly unfavorable to fertility, as it would en- 
tirely prevent the mixture of the separated particles 
of the different rocks. " The agency of water to 
produce this result is almost beyond conception. 
In a violent storm, we can perhaps form an idea 



SPECIFIC GRAVITY. 65 

how the breakers of the ocean eat away the shore, 
by referring to the North of Germany, where it has 
swallowed up large tracts of the continent and 
islands. Of twenty-four islands of East Friesland, 
which existed at the time of the birth of Christ, 
only sixteen at present remain. In like manner we 
have examples of the opposite effect of water, show- 
ing that at least a portion of that which it has taken 
from the land in one place is deposited in another ; 
— in the delta of the Nile, which is almost half as 
large again as the kingdom of Saxony ; in the delta 
of the Ganges, twice as large ; in the south coasts 
of France and Italy, where a band of solid land, 
from one to two leagues wide, has been formed by 
alluvial deposits since the time of the Romans ; in 
the Low Countries, in the Coral Islands, etc." In 
the polar regions immense bodies of ice are often 
detached from the land, bearing large quantities 
of earth with them, and often transport it great 
distances. Sometimes glaciers separate from the 
mountain-top on the approach of summer, and, in 
sliding toward the valley, wear off the rock, and 
push the heaps of gravel before them to the plain. 

" Rain, frost, and gravity," says Dr. Hitchcock, 
" are the three principal causes which operate to 
degrade the hills and fill up the valleys." 

Let us now consider the properties of soils. 
Specific gravity. Those soils which weigh the 
6* 



66 AFFINITY FOR MOISTURE. 

most are the least fertile. Pure sand has the great- 
est specific gravity, and we know it to be sterile. 
In proportion as it becomes light does the organic 
matter, and therefore the fertility, increase. Hu- 
mus, or soil of decayed vegetation, is the lightest of 
all ; then clay, calcareous earths ; then sand. 

Mr. Johnston found one cubic foot of dry 

Silicious or calcareous sand to weigh .... 110 lbs. 

Half sand and half clay, 95 

Common arable land, from 80 to 90 

Pure agricultural clay, 75 

Garden mould, richer than the last in vegetable matter, 70 

Peaty soil, from 30 to 50 

Affinity for moisture. As the plant receives its 
food through the medium of water, it is necessary 
that arable land should have the power of imbibing 
a considerable quantity. To be of value for fruits, 
a soil should be able to absorb from forty to seventy 
per cent, of its weight in water. Mons. Schiibler 
made a series of very interesting and useful exper- 
iments upon the character of soils, which was pub- 
lished in the annals of French agriculture, and 
whose tables we take the liberty to use, in consid- 
ering this and other properties of soils. 

The degree of absorption in different kinds of earth is nearly as follows : 

Kinds Of Earth. ^"ThsoS"''' 

Silicious sand, 25.0 

Gypsum, 27.0 

*■ Calcareous sand, 29.0 

Sandy clay, 40.0 

Strong clay, • . 50.0 

Fine calcareous earth, 85.0 



EETENTION OF MOISTURE. 67 

Kinds of Earth. ^^r cent, of Water 

absorbed. 

Humus, 190.0 

Garden earth, 89.0 

Arable soil, 52.0 

Arable soil, 48.0 

Retention of moisture. When soils become wet 
with dew or rain they part with it by evaporation 
with very different degrees of rapidity. Those 
which absorb the most are generally the ones w^hich 
dry the slowest, and this quality constitutes the 
difference between warm and cold soils, as seen 
below : 

One hundred parts of the water contained in the soil loses in the course of 
four hours, at 66° Fahr., the following per centage: 

Kinds of Soil. Per cent, of Loss. 

Silicious sand, 88.4 

Calcareous sand, . . . . - 75.9 

Gypsum, 71.7 

Sandy clay, 52.0 

Stiffish clay, 45.7 

Stiff clay, . 34.9 

Pure clay, 31.9 

Calcareous soil, 28.0 

Garden earth, 24.3 

Humus, 20.5 

Thus it will be seen that those soils which absorb 
the least moisture lose it the quickest by evapora- 
tion. As the earth dries, it shrinks. This causes 
the cracking of clays, which, as will be perceived in 
the chapter on drainage, is such an important qual- 
ity, because it permits the water to pass off through 
these crevices, when tenacious earths would other- 
wise be impervious. 



68 ABSORPTION FROM THE AIR. 

„,,„„•! 100 cubic parts 

Kinds of Soil. shrinks to 

Carbonate of lime in fine powder, . . . . . 95.0 

Sandy clay, . . . . . . . . . . 94.0 

Stiffish clay, . . . . 91.1 

Stiff clay, 88.6 

Pure clay, 81.7 

Garden earth, . 85.1 

Humus, 84.6 

Absorption of moisture from the air. This is a 
quality of great value, particularly in a hot and dry 
country, where the amount of rain for several months 
is very small. It restores to the soil a part of the 
moisture which has escaped by evaporation. Sir 
Humphrey Davy deemed this an index to the good 
quality of land. It will be found, according to M. 
Schiibler's experiments, that this property of the 
absorption of moisture from the air is in proportion 
to the fertility of the earth, since clay and peaty 
soils possess it most abundantly, and sandy and 
calcareous lands the least. Schiibler ascertained 
the following facts by exposing soils to the atmos- 
phere at the point of saturation with moisture, the 
temperature being from sixty to sixty-five degrees 
Pahrenheit. 

" Seventy-seven and one hundred and sixty-five 
thousandths (77.165) grains of Troy weight of «oil 
spread upon a surface of one hundred and forty- 
one and forty-eight one hundredths (141.48) square 
inches, absorbed in twelve, twenty-four, forty-eight, 
and seventy-two hours respectively, as shown in the 
following table. 



CAPILLARY ATTRACTIO?^. 
TABLE C. 



69 



Kinds of Soil. 



Silicious sand, 

Calcareous sand, . . . . 

Gypsum, 

Light clay, 

Stiffish clay, 

Strong clay, 

Pure clay, 

Chalk}'' soil, in fine powder. 

Garden earth, 

Humus, 



In 12 hours. 



grains. 
0. 

0.154 

0.077 

1.C17 

1.925 

2.310 

2.849 

2.002 

2.695 

6.160 



In 24 hours. 



grains. 
0. 

0.231 

0.077 

2.002 

2.310 

2.772 

3.234 

2.387 

3.465 

7.469 



In 48 hours. In 72 hour; 



grains. 
0. 

0.231 

0C77 

2.156 

2.618 

3.080 

3.696 

2.695 

3.8-50 

8.470 



grains. 
0. 

0.231 

0.077 

2.1.56 

2.695 

3.157 

3.773 

2.695 

4.004 

9.240 



Capillary atti^action. This consists of the sucking 
up of the moisture from the subsoil to the surface 
of the earth. It takes place in different degrees in 
all soils. In some it is not sufficient to sustain 
vegetation when the surface becomes dried by the 
heat of the sun, and therefore the crops suffer from 
drought. In others it is in excess, and constantly 
keeps the soil cold and wet, which it is the object 
of draining to prevent. Capillary attraction, to a 
certain extent, is of great importance to the growth 
of vegetation, as the moisture which arises generally 
contains valuable saline properties, which are left 
in rtie soil when the moisture escapes by evapora- 
tion. 



State of division, cohesion, and adhesion. In very 
stiff lands, the labor of the cultivator is principally 
expended in producing that friability which is ne- 



70 



COHESION AND ADHESION. 



cessary to productiveness. This is one reason why 
the chemical analysis of a soil is not always an in- 
dex to its value, nor a guide to the quality which it 
lacks, because in such an experiment its mechani- 
cal division cannot be considered. The frost is a 
powerful natural agent in promoting the looseness 
of land ; but the artificial means of subdivision will 
be fully considered in the chapter upon Pulver- 
ization. 



TABLE D. 



Kinds of So 


Tenacity 
il of Soil, that 
of pure Clay 
being 100. 


Tenacity 

expres-eed in 

Weight. 


Cohesion 

in the 
moist state. 


Vertical 
adhesion to 

Iron and 

Wood on the 

surface of 

3.937 square 

inches. 


Silicious sand, 


. . 0. 


kilogr. 
0. 


kilogr. 
0.17 


kilogr. 
0.19 


Calcareous sand 


, . . 0. 


0. 


0.19 


0.20 


Fine calcareous 


earth, 5. 


0.55 


0.65 


0.71 


Gypsum, . . 


. . 7.3 


0.81 


0.49 


0.53 


Humus, . . 


. . 8.7 


0.97 


0.40 


0.42 


Sandy clay, . 


. . 57.3 


6.36 


0.35 


0.40 


Stiff clay soil, 


. . 68.8 


7.64 


0.48 


0.52 


Stron<5 clay, . 


. . 83.3 


9.25 


0.78 


0.86 


Pure clay, . 


. . 100. 


11.10 


1.22 


1.32 


Garden earth, 


. . 7.6 


0.84 


0.29 


0.34 



The cohesive and adhesive power of soils is, of 
course, increased when they are wet. Every one 
knows how difficult it is to separate two wet pieces 
of glass. Clay soils possess this quality in the 
greatest degree ; it is, however, lessened by the 
methods described in the succeeding chapters. Schii- 
bler called the tenacity of pure clay one hundred, 



ABSORPTION OF GASES. 71 

and gave that of other soils relatively. The diffi- 
culty of working land is shown in the last column, 
also by its adhesion to the plough. The relative 
tenacity of diiferent soils may be learned from the 
preceding table (D). 

Absorption of oxygen^ carbonic acid, etc., from the 
atmosphere. The power of the soil to absorb these 
gases which are so important to vegetation, is de- 
pendent, to a large degree, upon the state of division 
of its particles. Baron Liebig maintains that the 
property of absorbing fertility from rain-water is 
dependent upon the amount of humus present in 
the soil. We give his words : 

"Arable soil possesses in these respects the same 
properties as charcoal. Diluted liquid manure, of 
deep-brown color and strong smell, filtered through 
the land, flows ofl" colorless and inodorous; not 
merely does it lose its smell and color, but the am- 
monia, potash, and phosphoric acid which it holds 
in solution are also more or less completely with- 
drawn from it, and this in a far greater degree than 
by charcoal. The rocks which by disintegration 
give rise to soil, if reduced to fine powder, are just 
as little possessed of this property as pounded coal. 
There is no perceptible connection between the 
composition of a soil and its power of absorbing 
potash, ammonia, and phosphoric acid. Earth 
abounding in clay with a small proportion of lime 



72 CARBONIC ACID. 

in it, possesses this absorbent power in the same 
degree as a lime soil with a small admixure of clay; 
but the quantity of humus present will alter the 
absorbent relation. 

" By a closer examination, we perceive that this 
power of arable soil differs in proportion to its 
greater or less porosity ; a dense, heavy clay, and a 
loose sandy soil possess this absorbent power in the 
smallest degree." 

Dr. Seller calculated the annual conversion of 
the carbon of organic matter into inorganic carbonic 
acid at not less than six hundred millions of tons ; 
and infers, on the most favorable aspect of the 
amount of soil over the earth's surface, that such an 
annual loss could not be withstood beyond six thou- 
sand years ; and on a less exaggerated assumption 
of its amount, probably very near the truth, that 
the waste would absorb the whole of the existing 
organic matter of the soil in about seven hundred 
and forty years. Dr. Seller contends that the truth 
of these conclusions remains unaltered, even if it be 
considered that much of the carbon of plants is 
drawn, not from the organic matter of the soil, but 
from the inorganic carbonic acid of the atmosphere, 
unless 'some inorganic source of their hydrogen and 
oxygen be at the same time admitted. He therefore 
regards Liebig's view of the inorganic nature of the 
food of plants as supported not only by many 
special facts, — such, for example, as that increase 



KETENTION OF HEAT. 73 

of the organic matter of the soil, which is often 
observed during the growth of plants, — but also by 
the general view of the earth's surface just taken ; 
because there is nothing in its aspect to warrant 
the idea that its means of maintaining the organic 
kingdoms are declining with the rapidity indicated 
in the statements just made.i 

Although there is no doubt that plants depend 
largely upon the atmosphere as well as on the soil for 
their carbonic acid, still there is probably no fixed 
law which governs the exact proportion which it 
shall receive from either, under all circumstances. 
If the soil is wanting in this element, or in the 
power of setting it free by decomposition, there is 
reason to believe that the foliage will endeavor to 
make up for the deficiency by imbibing it from the 
atmosphere. If, on the other hand, the soil is over- 
charged with carbonic acid, it may be also true that 
the leaves of those plants which are seen upon its 
surface exude, like a safety-valve, the surplus ma- 
terial. Such a theory, it appears to us, is consistent 
with the belief that God made all his natural laws 
so perfectly adapted to each other that, to all ap- 
pearances, they are, like the stones which form the 
arch, self-supporting. 

Absorption and retention of heat. The fact is well 
known that the earth, by absorbing the rays of heat 

1 Dr. Lindley's quotation from Annals of Natural History. 

7 



74 



RETENTION OF HEAT. 



from the sun, often becomes much hotter than the 
suiTOundmg atmosphere. The soil is frequently 
raised to a temperature of one hundred degrees 
Fahrenheit, and sometimes to one hundred and fifty. 
This fact explains the reason for the immense 
growth of trees at such times, if moisture is also 
present, while the air is only about eighty-five de- 
grees. 

The exposure of the soil has an influence 
upon this quality, as the degree of heat wall be 
much higher if it is protected from cold winds. Its 
color is also a great consideration, as the darker 
earths will, of course, absorb the most. But the 
power of retaining this heat after it is absorbed is 
a diff'erent matter. Schiibler's tables will again 
supply us with a valuable guide. 



TABLE E. 



Kinds of Soil. 


Highest Temperature acquired by the 
Upper Layer, the Mean Temperature 
being 25° Cent., 77^ Fahr. 


Moist Soil. 
Degrees Centigrade. 


Dry Soil. 
Degrees Centigrade. 


Silicious sand, yellowish gray, . . 
Calcareous sand, whitish gray, . . 
Bright gypsum, whitish gray, . . 
Poor clay, yellowish, 


37?25 (99°0 F.) 

37.38 

36.25 

36.75 

37.25 

37.38 

37.50 

35.63 (96.1 F.) 

39.75 (103.5 F.) 

37.50 


44°75 (112°5F.) 

44.50 

43.62 

44.12 

44.50 

44.62 

45.00 

43.00 (109.4 F.) 

47 37 

45.25 


Argillaceous earth, yellowish gray, 

Pure clay, bluish gray, 

Calcareous earth, white, .... 

Humus, blackish gray, 

Garden earth, blackish gray, . . 



THE SUBSOIL. 
TABLE F. 



75 



Kinds of Soil. 


Power of retaining Heat, 
that of Calcareous Sand 
being 100. 


Time which 232.2 cubic inches 
of Soil required to cool from 
14i^ to 70= Fahr., the tem- 
perature of the surrounding 
air being about 61=" Fahr. 


Calcareous sand, . . 


100.0 


h. m. 
3.30 


Silicious sand, . . . 


95.6 


3 27 


Gypsum, 


73.2 


2 34 


Sandy clay, .... 


76.9 


2 41 


Stifflshclay, . . . 


71.1 


2 30 


Stiff clay, . . . . 


68.4 


2 24 


Pure clay, .... 


66.7 


2 19 


Calcareous soil, . . 


61.8 


2 10 


Humus, 


49.0 


1 43 


Garden earth, . . . 


64.8 


2 16 



In examining all soils, we find that they consist 
of two layers, or strata, of varying thickness. The 
upper or surface soil is of a darker color than that 
which underlies it, because it possesses the organic 
remains of vegetable matter. Sometimes it is only 
three or four inches in depth, although in many 
fertile lands it may be found to as many feet. 
Beneath this lies the inferior layer, or subsoil. 
M. Boussingault, in the translation by W. Law, 
says : 

" In plains, on high table-lands, the analogy, in 
point of constitution, between the soil and subsoil 
is not so constant as in some other places. In such 
situations the arable land is frequently an alluvial 
deposit, proceeding from the destruction or disinte- 
gration of rocks situated at a great distance. When 
the superior strata possesses properties that are 



76 PEEMEABLE SUBSOILS. 

entirely different from the subsoils, it is easily un- 
derstood how the vegetable earth may be improved 
by the addition of a certain quantity of the subsoil. 
The impermeability of the subsoil is one grand 
cause of the too great humidity of much-cultivated 
land. A strong soil, very tenacious through the 
excess of clay which it contains, has its disadvanta- 
geous properties considerably lessened if the subsoil 
upon which it rests is sandy; first, from the evident 
amelioration which must result from an admixture 
of the two layers ; and next, because it is always a 
positive advantage to have a soil which has a strong 
affinity for water superposed upon a subsoil which 
is extremely permeable. The inverse situation is 
scarcely less desirable. A light, friable soil will 
have a greater value if it lies upon a bottom of a 
certain consistency which is capable of retaining 
moisture ; with this condition, however, — that the 
clayey layer shall not be too uneven in its surface, 
that it shall not present great hollows in which 
water shall collect and stagnate. An impermeable 
subsoil, to act beneficially in such circumstances, 
must have a sufficient inclination to admit of its 
draining itself. The most essential question, then, 
to be considered with regard to the nature of sub- 
soils, is, whether they are or are not permeable. 
Acquainted with the nature of vegetable earth, it 
is easy to judge of the advantages or disadvantages 
which will be presented by subsoil having the 



CLAYEY LANDS. 77 

faculty of maintaining or permitting the escape of 
moisture. 

" Generally, clayey lands answer better in dry 
climates, and light sandy soils in countries where 
rains are frequent. Kirwan made this remark long 
ago with reference to the analysis of wheat lands. 
The conclusion to which this celebrated chemist 
came was, that the soil best adapted for wheat in a 
rainy country must be of a different composition 
from that required where rains were less frequent. 
The fertility of sandy soils is notoriously in intimate 
relationship with the frequent fall of rain. Sandy 
deserts are sterile because it never rains. Upon 
the sandy downs of the coast of the Southern Ocean 
a brilliant vegetation is seen along the course of 
the few rivers which traverse them ; all beyond is 
dust and sterility. A sandy and little coherent soil 
is by so much the more favorably situated as it lies in 
the least elevated parts of a district, since it is there 
less exposed to the effects of drought. Any consid- 
erable degree of inclination is unfavorable to such 
a soil, inasmuch as the rain drains off too quickly, 
and because it is itself apt to be washed away. It 
is to prevent this action of the drains that the 
abrupt slopes of hills are generally left covered with 
trees ; and the deplorable consequences which have 
followed from cutting down the wood in mountain- 
ous countries are familiarly known. 

" Strong soils, on the contrary, are better if thus 
7* 



78 CLAYEY LANDS. 

placed. A certain inclination is peculiarly advan- 
tageous to them; and, indeed, in working clayey 
lands that stand upon a dead level, we are careful 
to ridge them in such a way as to favor the escape 
of water." 



CHAPTEH III. 

CLASSIFICATION AND ADAPTATION OF SOILS. 

SECTION I. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS ; SECTION II. ADAPTATION TO 
DIFFEEENT FRUITS — TARIETIES OF TIIE APPLE, APRICOT, BERBERRY, 

CHERRY, CURRANT, FIG, GOOSEBERRY, GRAPE, PEACH, AND NECTARINE 

VARIETIES OF THE PEAR, PLUM, QUINCE, RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY. 

SECTION I. CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 

TN arranging soils according to system, we shall 
adopt, as the most simple, that which was used 
by Loudon. The classes are formed from the pres- 
ence or absence of organic or inorganic matter in 
their bases ; therefore they are divided into primi- 
tive and secondary earths. These classes are sub- 
divided according as they are founded on saline, 
metallic, or carbonic matter : the genera^ on the 
principal earths, salts, metals, or carbon; species, 
on different mixtures ; varieties, on color and tex- 
ture ; sub-varieties, on moisture, dryness, richness, 
or lightness. Mr. Loudon observes : 

" In naming the genera of soils, the first thing to 
discover is the prevailing earth or earths; either 
the simple earths, as clay, lime, and sand, or the 
particular rocks from which the soil has been pro- 
duced, as granite, basalt, etc. Where one prevails, 



80 GENERA AND SPECIES. 

the generic name should be taken from that, as 
clayey soils; where two prevail, to all appearance 
equally, then their names must be conjoined in 
naming their genus, as clay and sand, or lime and 
clay, etc. The great thing to be observed is pre- 
cision in applying the terms. Sir Humphrey Davy 
observed : ' The term sandi^ soil should never be 
applied to any that does not consist of at least seven- 
eighths sand ; sandy soils which effervesce with acids 
should be distinguished by the name of calcareous 
sandy soils. The term clayey soil should not be 
applied to any land which contains less than one- 
sixth of impalpable earth matter not considerably 
effervescing with acids; the w^ord loam should be 
limited in its application to soils containing at least 
one-third of the same, copiously effervescing with 
acids. A soil to be considered as peaty should 
consist of at least one-half of vegetable matter. In 
cases where the earthy part of a soil is evidently 
the decomposed matter of one particular rock, a 
name derived from it may with propriety be applied. 
Alluvial soils may be designated as silicious, calca- 
reous, or argillaceous ; and in some cases the term 
saline may be added as a specific distinction appli- 
cable, for example, at the embouchure of rivers, 
when the alluvial remains are overflown by the sea. 
" In naming the species^ greater nicety is required 
than in naming the genera. The species are always 
determined by the mixture of matters, and never by 



ADAPTATION. 81 

the color or texture of that mixture, which belongs 
to the nomenclature of varieties. Thus a clayey 
soil with sand, is a sandy clay ; this is the name of 
the species : if the mass is yellow, and it is thought 
worth while to notice that circumstance, then it is 
a yellow sandy clay, which expresses at once the 
genus, species, and variety. A soil containing 
equal parts of clay, lime, and sand, would, as a gen- 
eric term, be called clay, lime, and sand ; if it con- 
tained no other mixture in considerable quantity, 
the term entire might be added as a specific dis- 
tinction ; and if notice was to be taken of its color 
or degree of comminution, it might be termed a 
brown, a fine, a coarse, a stiff, or a free entire clay, 
lime, or sand." 

The following table (p. 82) is used not only by Mr. 
Loudon, but by the agricultural establishments of 
Fellenberg, at Hofwyl, in Switzerland, at Moegelin, 
in Prussia, and also by Prof. Thouin. 

SECTION II. ADAPTATION OF SOILS. 

The choice of a suitable soil for the different 
species of fruits is a matter of great importance. 

That which is adapted to the growth of the apple 
differs somewhat according to the variety. Yet we 
find certain general qualities of the soil applicable 
to all. Those lands which part with their moisture 
readily are not suited to the growth of the apple, 



82 



CLASSIFICATION OF SOILS. 



TABLE G. 



Class. Order. 



Species. 



Variety. 



SCB-VARIETT. 



Clay, 



Entire, 









Clay, . . 

Lime, . . 

Sand, . . 

Clay, . . 

Lime, . . 

Sand, . . 

Clay, . . 

Lime, . . 

Sand, . . 



Granite, . 
Basalt, . 

Schist, . 

Sandstone, 

Limestone. 



Coal, . 



Entire, 
Entire, 



Ferruginous, 
Cupreous, . 
Saline, . 
Ferru,dnous, 
Cupreous, 
Saline, . 
Ferruginous, 
Cupreous, . 
Saline, 



Loamy, 

Peaty 

Mouldy, 

Limy, .... 

Sandv 

Clayey, .... 
Lna'iny, ... 

Sandy, .... 

Peaty 

jMouidy, .... 

Claycv 

Loamy, .... 
Luny, .... 

Peaty 

Mouldy, . . . , 
Ferruginous, loamy, etc., , 
Ferruginous, limy, etc.. 
Ferruginous, sandy, etc., 
Ferruginous, peaty, etc., , 
Ferruginous, mould}', etc., 
Cupreous, loamy, etc.. 
Saline, loamy, etc., . 
Cinerous, loamy, ttc. 
Ferruginous, loamy, etc., , 
Ferruginous, sandy, etc., , 
Cupreous, loamy, etc., ' , 
Cupreous, sandy, etc., 
Saline, loamy, e'tc, . 
Saline, sandy, etc., . 
Cineruus, loamy, etc., 
Cinerous, limy, etc., . 
Ferruginous, loamj', etc., . 
Ferruginous, limy, etc., . 
Cupreous, loamy^ etc., 
Cupreous, limy, etc.. 
Saline, loamy, etc., . 
Saline, limy, etc., 
Cinerous, loamy, etc., 
Cinerous, limy, etc., . 
Ferruainous, etc., . 
Quartzose, etc., . 
Ferruginous, etc., . 
Columnar, etc., . 
Whinstone, etc.. 
Ferruginous, etc., 
Micacious, etc.. 
Chlorite, etc., 
Ferruginous, etc., . 
Calcareous, etc., . 
Argillaceous, etc., . 
Cupreous, etc., . 
ClialUy, etc., . 
Marble, etc.. 
Shelly, etc., 
Magnesian, etc., . 
Sulphuric, etc., 
Ferruginous, etc.. 
Cupreous, etc., 
Argillaeeous, etc., 
Silicious, etc., . 
Slatv, etc., . 
Pyritie, etc., . 
Stony, etc., . 
Woolly, etc., . 



Red, . 
Yellow, 
Coarse, 
Fine, 



Black, red, yellow, coarse 
Black, red, yellow coarse 
Black, red, yellow, coarse 
Black, red, etc., . 
Black, red, etc., 
Black, red, . 
Black, red. 
Black, red, yellow, coarse 
Black, red, yellow, coarse 

Black 

Black, 



Black, red, yellow, etc., 

Black, red, yellow, etc., 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, red, yellow, etc. 

Black, . 

Black, 

BlacI;, . . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Bla; k, . 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Bh.ek. 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, red, yellow 

Black, . . 

Black, red, j'cUow 

Black, . 

Black. 

Black, red, yellow 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, etc.. 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, red, etc., 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black, . . 

Black, 

Black red, j'cllow 

Black, 

Black, . 

Black, . . 



^loist. 
Dry. 
Rich. 
Poor. 
Sterile. 
Moist, dry, 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry, 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry, 
INIoist, dry. 
Moist, dry. 
Moist, dry, 
Moist. 
Moist, dry. 

Moist, dry, 

Moist. 

!Moist. 

Moist. 

IMoist. 

Moist, dry. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Aloist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Aloist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist, dry, 

Moist. 

Moist, drv. 

Moist. ■ 

jNIoist. 

Moist, etc. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist, etc. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist, dr3', 

JMoist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

Moist. 

.A[i)ist. 

Moist. 

INIoist, dry, 1 

.Moist. 

Moist. 

Moi-t. 



etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

rich, etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

etc. 

rich, etc. 

rich, etc. 

etc. 
etc. 



THE APPLE. 83 

because it requires abundant nutriment, and in the 
absence of water this cannot be obtained. Neither 
does this fruit flourish in a soil which contains 
water in excess. The favorite earth of the apple is 
one which is deep, loamy, and calcareous. In those 
regions where the substratum is limestone, we ex- 
pect and find the most beautiful fruits of this species. 
Marly earths are therefore adapted to it, beqause 
they contain carbonate of lime. Loamy clays are 
also often well adapted to the apple. A table is 
suffixed containing, as far as possible, the soils best 
suited to the leading varieties of this fruit. We do 
not assert that a certain variety will not grow upon 
those soils which are here left blank, but that they 
generally succeed better upon those indicated. 

Name of Variety. Lime. Loamy Clay. Loamy Sand. 

American Pearmain, well, tolerably, 

Bakhvin, " well, tolerably. 

Belmont, " 

Early Joe, " well, well. 

Fameuse, " " " 

Fall Pippin, " " 

Golden Sweet, " " well. 

Green Sweet, " " 

Gravcnstein, " " tolerably. 

Jersey Sweet, " " well. 

Ladies' Sweet, " . " 

Newtown Pippin, ** 

Northern Spy, " well, well. 

Peck's Pleasant, " " 

Porter, " " tolerably. 

Rambo, " 

Red Astrachan, " " tolerably. 

Rhode Island Greening, " " well. 

Roxbury Russet, " " 



84 



APRICOT, BERBERRY, CHERRY. 



Name of Variety. 


Lime. 


Loamy Clay. 


Loamy Sand 


Swaar, 


well, 






Large Early Bough, 


<( 


well, 


well. 


Talman's Sweet, 


(( 






Wine, 


tc 




well. 


Wine Sops, 


tt 




(( 


Lyman's Sweet, 


(( 




(( 


Keswick Codlin, 


(t 






Primate, 


t( 







The Apricot This truly delicious fruit is of 
foreign origin, and the great difficulty in its culti- 
vation in the northern part of the United States is 
the prevention of injury during the winter. When 
it finds no such difficulty, deep limestone soils are 
those in which it delights. But at the north such 
land would induce too free and late a growth, which 
would result in the death of the tree. Therefore a 
gravelly or sandy soil must be selected, which shall 
in a measure stunt it, and produce a dwarfish habit. 
Then the growth will be short, and will ripen, 
although the fruit will not be so fair as in regions 
where it is not injured by the winter. 



The Berberry. This flourishes on almost any 
soil, from loamy sands to stiff clays, but its most 
natural condition is in a rich, peaty, limey earth. 

The Cherry. The observations already made with 
regard to the apricot apply equally well to this fruit ; 
but the morello varieties require clay soils. 



The Currant. A peaty or clayey soil is that 



CURRANT, FIG, GOOSEBERRY. 85 

which is best adapted to the growth of this berry. 
On dry sands the foliage of the old varieties drops 
off, and the fruit becomes shrivelled before it is 
ripe. Where it is grown on such lands, la Versail- 
laise, la Fertile d' Angers, and la Hative de Bertin 
are much superior, as they very persistently retain 
their foliage, and the fruit is therefore of greater 
size and duration. 

The Flg^ in those regions where it is hardy, flour- 
ishes upon a loamy lime, or clay soil ; but in north- 
ern latitudes, if planted upon such lands, its suc- 
culent shoots are killed during the winter. In the 
latter they should be grown upon loamy sands, which 
will check their free growth, and induce hardness 
and ripeness of wood. 

The Gooseberry requires a rich loamy clay for 
its perfect development. This applies only to such 
varieties as are free from mildew ; others are not 
worth cultivation. 

The Grape. Mr. E,. Bucnanan, of Ohio, in his 
work entitled " Grape Culture," speaks thus : " The 
soil best suited for a vineyard is a dry, calcareous 
loam, with a porous subsoil, not retentive of 
moisture ; if mixed with some gravel or small stones, 
so much the better. Some vignerons prefer a 
sandy soil with a gravelly substratum, as in this the 
8 



86 THE GRAPE. 

grapes are less subject to rot ; the juice, however, 
is not so rich, — lacking saccharine matter, — and in 
dry seasons the vines will suiFer from the drought, 
shedding their leaves prematurely, and preventing 
the grapes from ripening properly. On warm 
sandy soil, the fruit-buds, if swelled in the autumn, 
are sometimes killed by the frosts of a severe winter. 
Soils underlaid by a stiff wet clay are to be avoided, 
as also wet or spongy lands." 

Mr. John Williamson, whose wines have a high 
reputation, writes, in a letter to Mr. Buchanan : 
" I consider the proper selection of the soil almost 
everything in the successful cultivation of the grape 
for making wine. I have visited nearly all the 
vineyards near Cincinnati, and feel confident that 
many of them must eventually fail from a want of 
selecting at first the right kind of soil ; and yet, in 
my opinion, there is plenty of suitable land in 
almost any neighborhood. Some have planted on 
that of a grayish, gravelly surface, with a heavy blue 
clay subsoil, impervious alike to water and the roots 
of the vine, further than it is loosened by the spade 
or the plough in trenching. Such, if it does pro- 
duce a growth of wood, causes the grape to rot. 

" Another soil unsuited to the grape is that with 
a surface of rich mould, underlaid with a stratum 
of fine, bright yellow sand, clammy and adhesive. 
This is well calculated to deceive; but it has no 
strength below the mould, and the vines invariably 



THE GRAPE. 87 

become weak, and of small growth. Such lands 
may be improved by Ihne and ashes. The soil on 
which I rely, and, from the experience of seven or 
eight years, place the greatest confidence in, is of a 
grayish black, breaking up into square lumps in 
cultivation, deep, and running into a reddish yellow 
subsoil, friable like the surface in working, and 
generally resting on limestone rock. On such soils, 
with proper cultivation, I have never known the 
vine to fail." 

Mr. N. Longworth, in a communication to the 
Cincinnati Horticultural Society, says : " In my 
vineyards, at Tusculum, the rot has prevailed, and 
this season two-thirds of the crop was lost. The 
subsoil was a stiff clay, and to this fact I chiefly 
attribute it. Among my vines near the foot of tho 
hill, where the ground was more porous, there was 
less rot, and at the bottom, or near it, where the rain 
immediately sank deep into the earth, there was no 
rot. And this I have found to be the case also at 
other vineyards. Where the subsoil was a compact 
clay, it prevailed ; where it was mixed Avith sand or 
gravel, or where it was porous, there was no rot." 

The Peach and Nectarine delight in a deep loamy 
sand, but will succeed in almost any light soil. In 
the north, the soil should not be so generous as to 
induce too free a growth. 



88 



THE PEAR. 



The Pear succeeds generally upon such a soil as 
that described for the apple ; but at the same time it 
should be porous, that the roots may roam freely. 
The labors of amateurs have resulted, however, in 
the production of varieties adapted to almost all 
soils ; and in the table which follows will be shown, 
as nearly as it is possible to do in a new undertak- 
ing, the soils on which particular varieties succeed. 
Let it not be surmised that they grow onli/ on such 
lands, for in other soils they may flourish with more 
or less success ; yet those below enumerated are the 
soils which experience has proved to be best suited 
to them : 



Varieties. 


Clayey. 


Limey. 


Sandy. 


Andrews, 


well, 


well, 


tolerably. 


Abbot, 


tolerably. 




well. 


Bartlett, 


well. 




" 


Beurre d'Anjou, 


" 




" 


Bcurre d'Aremburg, 


cankers. 




(( 


Beurre Bosc, 






(t 


Beurre' Diel, 


cracks. 




iC 


Beurre Superfin, 


well. 




(( 


Beurre' Giffard, 


spots. 




sheds its foliage. 


Beurre Clairgeau, 


(( 




grows feebly. 


Beurre' Langelier, 


well. 




well. 


Brandywine, 


" 




« 


Belle Lucrative, 


(( 




(( 


Buffum, 


It 




ft 


Dearborn's Seedling, 


tolerably. 




tt 


Doyenne Boussock, 


well, 




It 


Duchess 1 d'Angouleme, 


fails in setting. 




tt 


Flemish Beauty, 


cracks. 




tt 


Glout Morceau, 


hard at the core. 




tt 


Howell, ' 


well. 




tt 


Louise bonne de Jersey, 


(C 




tt 


Lawrence, 


ct 




u 


Merriam, 


« 




}< 



PLUM, RASPBERRY, STRAWBERRY. 89 



Varieties. 


Clayey. 


Limey. 


Sandy. 


Onondaga, 


well, 


well. 


well. 


Eostiezer, 


« 


« 


" 


Seckel, 


(( 




*( 


Urbaniste, 


spots, 




(t , 


Vicar of Winkfield, 


well, 


tt 


tt 


Winter Nelis, 


« 


t( 


grows feebly. 



The Plum seems to succeed best upon a stiff clay ; 
but many cultivators have been very successful with 
it on quite light soils. 

Tlie Quince has few large roots ; these are mostly 
fibrous, and extend but a little distance from the 
trunk. It delights in a rich, deep, peaty, or loamy 
clay or lime soil. 

The Raspheyry and the Strawherry require a deep 
loamy clay, but for immediate and early production 
they are often planted upon sharp sands. The soil 
should be retentive of moisture for the general crop, 
as these little plants drink freely during the growth 
of their fruit. 

We have now considered the origin of the soil, 
its properties, and its adaptation to the various 
species and varieties of fruits. In the succeeding 
three chapters we shall notice the improvement in 
them resulting from cultivation. 



CHAPTER IV. 

DRAINING THE SOIL. 

METHOD BY WHICH THE SOIL IS SUPPLIED WITH MOISTURE t RAIN, 
SPRINGS — DESCRIPTION OF DIFFERENT STRATA — CAPILLARY ATTRAC- 
TION. METHODS BY WHICH WATER IS REMOVED : RUNNING OFF ITS 
SURFACE — EVAPORATION — PERCOLATING THROUGH ITS SUBSTANCE. 
WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE — THE DIRECTION OF THE DRAINS 
— THE DISTANCE — THE DEPTH — THE MATERIAL TO BE USED NUM- 
BER OF TILE TO THE ACRE — MANNER OF OPERATION. THE EFFECTS 

OF drainage: promoting pulverization PREVENTION OF INJURY 

BY DROUGHT — INCREASE OF THE ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE — VEN- 
TILATION — PERMITTING THE WARM SPRING SHOWERS TO ENTER THE 
SOIL — FREEZING THE LAND DEEPER DEEPENING THE SOIL DE- 
STROYING WEEDS — CAUSING A MORE HARDY GROWTH — PRODUCTION 
BECOMES MORE CERTAIN. 

A S food enters plants through the medium of 
water, the proper regulation of it is of par- 
amount importance. Rain-water is not only a 
powerful solvent, but it extracts ammonia from the 
atmosphere, which increases and elaborates those 
elements of fertility in the soil on which vegetation 
depends for health and fruitfulness. There are 
three methods by which the earth is supplied with 
moisture. 

1. By rain. The average annual quantity which 
falls throughout the United States is between thirty 
and forty inches. It is a source of great wealth, and 



RAIN. 91 

contains one-half more oxygen, and four times the 
amount of carbonic acid which is found in the 
atmosphere through which it falls. The Cyclopedia 
of Agriculture remarks : " Eain-water always con- 
tains in solution air, carbonic acid, and ammonia. 
The first two ingredients are among the most power- 
ful disintegrators of a soil. 

" The oxygen of the air and the carbonic acid, 
being both in a highly condensed form by being 
dissolved, possess very strong affinities for the in- 
gredients of the soil. The oxygen attacks and 
oxidizes the iron ; the carbonic acid, seizing the 
lime and potash, and other alkaline ingredients of 
the soil, produces a further disintegration, and 
renders available the locked-up resources of this 
magazine of nutriment. 

" Before these can be used by plants, they must 
be rendered soluble ; and this is only effected by 
the free and frequent access of rain and air. The 
ready passage of both of these, therefore, enables 
the soil to yield up its concealed treasures." 

The amount of ammonia contained in the rain-fall 
of a year upon a single acre is equivalent to the 
amount found in from one to two hundred weight 
of Peruvian guano. To retain this in the soil, it is 
obvious that the water in which it is contained must 
percolate through its particles. This it cannot do 
if the land is already overcharged with moisture, as 
is the case in most of our soils. When it cannot 



92 SPRINGS. 

filter through the earth, it is either lost by evapora- 
tion, or is washed into the valleys to create unhealthy 
swamps. 

2. The soil is supplied ivith moisture hy springs. 
To illustrate this we quote at length from Mr. 
French's useful book upon " Land Drainage," which 
should be in the hands of every enterprising farmer 
and fruit-grower. " Usually we find the crust of 
the earth in our cultivated fields in strata or layers. 
First, a surface-soil of a few inches, of a loamy 
nature, in which clay or sand predominates; then, it 
may be, a layer of sand or gravel which freely admits 
the passage of water ; and perhaps next, and within 
two or three feet of the surface, a stratum of clay, 
through which water passes very slowly, or not at 
all. These strata are sometimes regular, extending 
at an equal depth over large tracts, and having a 
uniform dip or inclination. More frequently, how- 
ever, in hilly regions especially, they are quite 
irregular, — the impervious stratum often having 
depressions of greater or less extent, and holding 
water like a bowl. Not unfrequently, as we cut a 
ditch upon a declivity, we find that the dip of the 
strata below has no correspondence with the visible 
surface of the field, but that diff'erent strata lie 
nearly level, or are much broken, while the surface 
has a regular inclination. 

" Underlying all soils, at a greater or less depth, 
but usually only a few feet below the surface, is 



BIPERVIOUS STRATA. 93 

found some bed of rock or clay impervious to water. 
The tendency of the rain which falls upon the earth 
is to sink directly downward; but, turned aside 
by the many obstacles referred to, it often passes 
obliquely, or almost horizontally through the soil. 
The drop which falls upon the hill-side sinks per- 
haps a few inches, when it meets with a bed of clay, 
upon which it glides along for many days, until at 
last it is borne out to the surface, to be drunk up 
by the sun on some far-off slope. Another, falling 
upon the sandy plain, sinks at once to the water- 
line which rests on clay beneath, and, slowly creep- 
ing along, helps to form a swamp or bog in the 
valley. Sometimes the rain which falls upon the 
high land is collected together by fissures in the 
rocks, or by seams or ruptures in the impervious 
strata below the surface, and finds its vent in a 
gushing spring upon the hill-side." 

When rain falls on a tract of country, part of it 
flows over the surface, and makes its appearance in 
the numerous natural and artificial courses which 
may exist, while another portion is absorbed by the 
soil and the porous strata which lie under it. Let 
the following diagram represent such a tract of 
country, and let the portion (e) represent clay, or 
other impervious strata, while the remaining por- 
tions exhibit those layers of gravel, sand, or chalk 
which permit a free passage for the water.-^ 

1 Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Girdwood. 



94 



IMPERVIOUS STRATA. 



" When rain falls in such a district, after sinking 
through the surface layer (represented in the dia- 
gram by a narrow band) it reaches the stratified 




layers beneath. Through these it still further sinks, 
if they are porous, until it reaches some impervious 
stratum, which arrests its progress directly down- 
ward, and compels it to find its way along its upper 
surface. Thus the rain which falls on the surface 
represented between (h) and (d) is compelled by the 
impervious stratum to flow toward (c) ; here it is at 
once absorbed, but is arrested by the impervious 
layer (e) ; it is therefore compelled to pass through 
the porous stratum (c), along the surface of (e), to 
(a), where it pours forth in a fountain, or forms a 
morass or swamp, proportionate in size and extent 
to the tract of country between (b) and (d), or the 
quantity of rain which falls upon it. In such a 
case as is here represented, it will be obvious that 
the spring may often be at a great distance from the 
district from which it derives its supply, and this 
accounts for the fact that drainage-works, on a large 



SPRINGS AND MARSHES. 



95 



scale, sometimes materially lessen the supply of 
water at places remote from the scene of operations. 
" In the instance already given, the water forming 
the spring is represented as gaining access to the 
porous stratum at a point where it crops out from 
beneath an impervious one, and as passing along to 
its point of discharge at a considerable depth, and 
under several layers of various character. Some- 
times, in an undulating country, large tracts may 
rest immediately upon some highly porous stratum, 
as from (h) to (c) in the following diagram, render- 
ing the necessity of draining less apparent, while 
the country from {a) to (h) and from (c) to (d) may 
be full of springs and marshes. This arises partly 
from the fact that the rain which falls in these 
latter districts is unable to find a way of escape, and 
partly because the natural drainage of the more 
porous soils adjoining is discharged upon it. 




" Again : the rocks lying under the surface are 
sometimes so full of fissures, that although they 
themselves are impervious to water, yet so com- 
pletely do they carry off rain, that in some parts of 
the county of Durham [England] the sinking of 
wells is rendered useless, and the farmers find it 



9G 



CLAY AND SAND FAULTS. 



necessary to drive their cattle many miles for water. 
It sometimes happens that these fissures or cracks 
penetrate to enormous depths, and are of great width, 
and filled with sand or clay. These are termed 
' faults ' by miners ; and some which we lately ex- 
amined, at distances of from three to four hundred 
yards from the surface, were from fiye to fifteen 
yards in width. These faults, Avhen of clay, are 
generally the cause of springs appearing at the 
surface; they arrest the progress of the water in 
some of the porous strata, and compel it to find an 
exit by passing to the surface between the clay and 
the face of the upturned strata. When the fault 
is of sand or gravel, the opposite efi"ect takes place, 
if it communicates with any porous stratum, and 
water which may have been flowing over the surface 
is at once absorbed. 

" In the following diagram, let us suppose that 
(h) represents such a clay fault as has been de- 




scribed, and that (a) represents a sandy one, and 
that (c) and (d) represent porous strata charged 
with water. On the water reaching the fault at (6), 
it will be compelled to find its way to the surface, 
forming a spring, and rendering the retentive soil 



ARTESIAN WELLS. 97 

from (&) to (a) wet ; but as soon as it reaches the 
sandy fault at (a), it is immediately absorbed, and 
again reaches the porous strata, along w^hich it had 
travelled before being forced to the surface at (b). 
It will be observed that the strata at the point of 
dislocation are not represented as in a line with the 
portions from which they have been dissevered. 
This is termed the upthrow of the fault, as at (b) ; 
and the dethrow, as at (a). For the sake of the 
illustration, the displacement is here shown as very 
slight ; but in some cases these elevations and de- 
pressions of the strata extend to many hundreds of 
feet, as for instance at the mines of the British Iron 
Company at Cefu Mawre, in North Wales, where 
the dethrow of the fault is three hundred and sixty 
feet. 

" Sometimes the strata are disposed in the form 
of a basin. In this case, the water percolating 
through the more elevated ground, near w4iat may 
be termed the rim, collects in the lower parts of the 
strata toward the centre, then forcing its way to the 
surface, if the upper impervious beds be thin ; or, 
if otherwise, remaining a concealed reservoir, ready 
to yield its supplies to the shaft or boring-rod of 
the w^ll-sinker, and sometimes forming a living 
fountain capable of rising many feet above the 
surface. 

" It is in this way that what are called artesian 
wells are formed. The following diagram repre- 
9 



9B 



WEEPING HILL-SIDES. 



sents such a disposition of the strata as has just 
been referred to. The rain which falls on the tracts 
of country at (a) and (b) gradually percolates toward 
the centre of the basin, where it may be made to 
give rise to an artesian well, as at (c), by boring 
through the superincumbent mass of clay ; or it 
mav force itself to the surface through the thinner 
part of the layer of clay, as at (d), there forming a 
spring or swamp. 




" Again : the higher parts of hilly ground are 
sometimes composed of very porous and absorbent 
strata, while the lower portions are more impervi- 
ous, — the soil and subsoil being of a very stiff and 
retentive description. In this case, the water col- 
lected by the porous layers is prevented from finding 
a ready exit, where it reaches the impervious layers, 
by the stiff surface-soil. The water is by this means 
dammed up in some measure, and requires a con- 
siderable degree of pressure ; and, forcing itself to 
the clay at various places, it forms those extensive 
' weeping'-banks which have such an injurious 
effect upon many of our mountain pastures. This 
was the form of spring, or swamp, to the removal 
of which Elkington principally turned his attention ; 



CAPILLARY ATTEACTIOK 



99 



and the following diagram, taken from a description 
of his system of draining, will explain the stratifica- 
tion and springs more clearly. 




" In some districts, where clay forms the staple 
of the soil, a bed of sand or gravel, completely sat- 
urated with water, occurs at the depth of a few feet 
from the surface, following all the undulations of 
the country, and maintaining its position, in relation 
to the surface, over considerable tracts — here and 
there pouring forth its waters in a spring, or denot- 
ing its proximity by the sub-aquatic nature of the 
herbage. 

" Such a configuration is represented in the follow- 
ing diagram, where (a) represents the surface-soil ; 




(h) the impervious subsoil of clay; (c) the bed of 
sandy clay or gravel ; and (^) the lower bed of clay 
resting upon the rocky strata beneath." 

3. The moisture rises to the soil by capillary attract 



100 EVAPORATION. 

tion exerted upon a wet subsoil. The power of this 
agency varies widely in different soils. In those 
of a porous character, it is far less potent than in a 
close firm clay or loam ; because, in the former, the 
interstices are greater, and the attraction is over- 
come by the gravity of the water. This principle 
should be borne in mind when we investigate the 
required depth of the drain ; as one of four feet, in 
a retentive soil, will thoroughly drain less depth of 
earth than if placed at the same distance below the 
surface in a loose sand or gravel. 

As there are three sources from which the soil is 
supplied with moisture, so there are also three ways 
by which it is deprived of it. 

1. Bi^ running off its surface. In this way it is 
unproductive of benefit, as the fertility which it 
contains is lost. It fails to comminute and disinte- 
grate the soil by percolating through its particles. 
If the warm showers gain admittance to the earth 
in the spring, they raise its temperature, and vege- 
table growth commences earlier. 

2. By evaporation. As by perspiration the body 
of an animal is kept cool, so the soil in evaporation 
parts with a great amount of heat, which would 
otherwise be retained to encourage the growth of 
the plants. A writer in the Gardeners' Chronicle, 
of England, observes, that " the principal result of 
the loss of water by evaporation is indicated by the 



PERCOLATION. 101 

fact, that during the conversion of every pound of 
it into vapor, as much heat is consumed and lost 
as would be produced by burning two or three 
ounces of coal ; and when you think that an ordi- 
nary rain-fall amounts to three thousand tons per 
acre every year, you can easily perceive that the loss 
of heat by the evaporation of a comparatively in- 
considerable portion of this must involve a great 
cooling of the land." 

Although some evaporation will take place even 
upon drained land, yet, if we can convey off the most 
of the surplus water after it has passed through 
the substance of the soil and has deposited its fer- 
tility, just that amount of heat is gained which 
would have been required for its evaporation. 

The drained field will be in readiness to till in 
the spring ten days before that which is undrained, 
and vegetation upon it will not become checked so 
suddenly in the fall, but will be hastened to maturity 
during the entire summer by the increased degree 
of its heat. The difference in the temperature of 
the two soils is often from ten to fifteen degrees 
Fahrenheit. 

3. By ijercolating through its substance. The same 
writer again says : " Let us now consider what 
water does by percolation ; and its effects we can do 
little more than enumerate. They are briefly these: 
It carries the temperature of the air into the soil, a 
thing, the possible injury of which in the autumn 
9* 



102 INCREASE OF HEAT. 

and winter, when the air is colder than the soil, is 
as nothing when compared with the benefits result- 
ing from it in spring, when the air is warmer, and 
when the advantages of early growth are great. 
The most important experiments which we think 
of as proving the influence of draining upon the 
temperature of the soil, are those described by Mr. 
Stephens in his exceedingly instructive book with 
regard to the operations of the Marquis of Tweed- 
dale at Tester Mains. There the temjDerature of 
the soil in an undrained state was forty-eight de- 
grees Fahrenheit ; but by the cutting of a drain near 
it, and the setting in of a current through it, its 
temperature was raised one and one-half degrees in 
six hours. 

" Another efl"ect of water in percolating through 
the land is seen in the introduction of the atmos- 
pherical elements which it holds in solution. The 
carbonic acid, by its operation on the alkalies and 
alkaline earths, is a powerful solvent and disin- 
tegrator. The oxygen keeps in check the deoxidat- 
ing efi'ect of vegetable matter in the soil, which in 
its absence tends to reduce the higher state of 
oxidation of the iron present in the soil into the 
lower state, where it does mischief by forming, with 
acids in the soil, soluble salts, which are injurious 
to vegetation. 

'• But the main purpose served by water during 
its percolation through the land is that of a feeder 



INTRODUCTION OF FERTILITY. 103 

of the plants. A fertile soil, cultivated so as to 
exhibit its fertility in the most profitable manner, 
has growing upon it crops whose habit and specific 
character are adapted to the climate in which they 
are placed, and to the character of the soil itself. 
It yields these crops in the order in which each, 
succeeding to the cultivation of its predecessor, shall 
find the soil, chemically as regards its contents, 
and mechanically as regards its texture, and practi- 
cally as regards consequent cleanness of the land, 
and the fitness of their respective times of cultiva- 
tion to one another, in best condition for the supply 
of the wants of the crop in question. It is annually 
manured and cultivated so as best to meet the cur- 
rent wants of the plants raised upon it ; but it is 
especially dependent for all its powers to bring these 
crops to a fruitful maturity upon the fact that there 
is, during and after every shower of rain, a continual 
current of water and of air passing throughout its 
substance. This current should not be too rapid, 
lest its soluble parts should be washed to water; 
indeed, it is hardly possible that it should be too 
slow; slow enough, however, to dissolve from the 
soil whatever it contains of food for plants, and fast 
enough to be continually bringing fresh supplies by 
every mouth which the absorbing extremities of 
the roots present. 

" All these purposes of warming the soil, of in- 
troducing substances into it which shall operate 



104 WHAT LANDS REQUIRE DRAINAGE. 

chemically upon its minerals, and of converting it 
into an efficie7it vehicle of the matter which it con- 
tains, are answered by the percolation of water 
through the soil. You must not think, then, of 
drainage as a contrivance for getting rid of water 
from the land as an enemy ; nor must you think of 
a wet and ill-drained field as being merely an illus- 
tration of the injury done by water in excess, as it is 
called. Water need hardly ever be an enemy, and 
need rarely be in excess. Drainage is a contrivance 
for making use of it as a friend, and an ill-drained 
field is an illustration of the mischief done by water, 
whether there be little of it or much, when not in 
motion." 

We desire, then, to promote the percolation of the 
water through the soil, and to do this we lay con- 
duits beneath its surface to carry away the surplus 
moisture, and to produce currents of water and of 
air. We intend to enumerate several points which 
are of importance to its accomplishment. 

1. Wliat lands require drainage ? That it is neces- 
sary in land where water stands upon its surface 
in summer, is evident to every one ; but that soils 
where the evil is hidden are as much in need of it, 
is difficult for the uninitiated to comprehend. If 
rushes, or any aquatic plants make their appearance, 
it is a sure sign of the necessity of drainage ; for 
all the fruit-growing plants flourish alone upon dry 



DIRECTION OF THE DRAIN. 105 

land, and these water-loving weeds would not appear 
did not the wetness of the soil encourage them. If 
the earth is wet and clammy in the spring, so that 
it is impossible to cart muck upon it, or prepare 
the ground properly for the crop until late in the 
season, it is manifest that to gain a week or ten 
days in this most important time is a very decided 
advantage. When trees or grain heave badly during 
the thaws of winter, or generally when the foliage 
of plants is pale and sickly during the summer, it is 
an index of the necessity of thorough drainage. 

2. The direction of the drains. While there are 
some general rules applicable in most cases, yet it 
is sometimes necessary to vary them with reference 
to the outlet and the undulating character of the 
ground. 

"In many subsoils there are thin partings, or 
layers, of porous materials, interspersed between the 
strata, which, though not of sufficient capacity to 
give rise to actual springs, still exude enough water 
to indicate their presence. These partings occasion- 
ally crop out, and give rise to damp spots, which 
are to be seen diversifying the surface of fields, 
when the drying breezes of spring have begun to 
act upon them. In the following cut the light lines 
represent such partings.^ 

" Now, it will be evident, in draining such land, 
that if the drains be disposed in a direction trans- 

1 Cyclopedia of Agriculture, by Girdwood. 



106 



DIRECTION OF THE DRAINS. 



verse or oblique to the slope, it will often happen 
that, no matter how skilfully planned, they will 
not reach these partings at all, as at (a). In this 
case, the flow will continue in its accustomed chan- 
nel, and discharge its waters at (&). But again, 




even though it does reach these partings, as at (c), 
a considerable portion of water will escape from the 
drain itself, and flow to the lower level of its old 
point of discharge at (d). Whereas, a drain cut in 
the line of the slope, as from (d) to (e), intersects 
all these partings, which furnishes an outlet to them 
at a lower level." 

Mr. French in his " Land Drainage," in remark- 
ing on this description by Mr. Girdwood, says : 
" The line of the greatest fall is the only one in 
which a drain is relatively lower than the land on 
either side of it. Whether we regard the surplus 
water as having recently fallen upon the field, and 
as being stopped near its surface by an impervious 
stratum, or as brought down on these strata from 
above, we have it to be disposed of, as it rests 



THE LINE OF DESCENT. 107 

upon this stratum, and as borne out by it to the 
surface. 

"A drain down the slope gives to the water borne 
up by these strata an outlet of the depth of the 
drain. If it be four feet, it cuts the water-bearing 
strata each at that depth, and takes off the water. 
In these cases the different layers of clay, or other 
impervious partings, are like the steps of a huge 
staircase, with the soil filling them up to a regular 
grade. The ditch cuts through these steps, letting 
the water that rests on them fall off at the ends, 
instead of running over the edges. 

" Now, looking at the operation of drains across 
the sloj)e, and supposing that each ditch is draining 
the breadth next above it, we will suppose the drain 
to be running full of water, what is there to prevent 
it from passing out of that drain in its progress at 
every joint of the tile, and so saturating the breadth 
below it '? Drain-pipes afford the same facility for 
water to soak out at the lower side as to enter on 
the upper, and there is the same law of gravitation 
to operate in each case. 

"Mr. Denton says: 'With respect to the direction 
of drains, I believe very little difference of opinion 
exists. All the most successful drainers concur in 
the line of the steepest descent as essential to effi- 
ciency and economy.' 

" To produce perfect drainage of a portion of this 
land, which we wdll suppose to be a gentle slope, 



108 DIRECTION OF THE DRAINS. 

the first object must be to cut off the flow of water 
upon or near the surface. An open ditch across 
the top w^ould most certainly efi'ect this purpose, 
and it may be doubtful whether any other drain 
would be suflicient. This would depend upon the 
quantity of water flowing down ; if it be very great 
at times, a part of it would be likely to flow across 
the top of an under drain, from not having time to 
percolate downward into it. 

" In all cases it is advised, when the work stops 
upon a slope, to introduce a cross-drain connecting 
the tops of all the minors. This is called a header. 
Its object is to cut ofl" all the water that may be 
passing along in the subsoil down the slope, and 
which would otherwise be likely to pass downward 
between the system of drains to a considerable depth 
before finding them." 

In deciding the direction of the drains we must 
be careful to ascertain the source from which the 
water proceeds. If it arises from springs, the aim 
must be to direct them so as to cut off the fountain, 
— and at this point they must be frequent, — while 
below it may not be necessary to place them at less 
than double the distance. If the surplus water is 
rolled down from higher land, the direction must 
be such as to head off and carry it away : the size 
of the pipes and frequency of the drains must cor- 
respond with the amount of water to be disposed 
of When we have only to contend with the mois- 



DISTANCE BETWEEN THE DRAINS. 



lt)9 



ture which the land itself receives from rain, it 
is a comparatively easy matter, and the drains may 
be laid wdth greater uniformity, while in either of 
the preceding cases the same rule which we now 
pursue would have entirely defeated the object. 
Generally it is more economical for the fruit-grower 
who proposes to drain his land to engage the ser- 
vices of a competent engineer, as drainage, unlike 
manuring or cultivation, is a permanent improve- 
ment. The system, as a whole, must be formed 
before the work is commenced as far as relates to the 
place of outlet and the position of the main drain 
and its stronger branches, else it would be difficult to 
decide on the size of the pipe which was required. 

3. The distance at ivhich the drains should he from 
one another is an important consideration. This also 
must be decided from a knowledge of the cause of 
the superfluous moisture. This is well illustrated 
in a letter from Mr. Denton by the same author. 

" The wetness of land, which for distinction's sake 
I will call the water of pressure, like the water of 




springs, to which it is nearly allied, can be effectually 
10 



110 VARYING INCLINATION. 

and cheaply removed only by drains devised for 
and devoted to that object. Appropriate drains at 
(hhh), for instance, as indicated in the dark vertical 
lines above, are found to do the service of many 
parallel drains, which as frequently miss as they 
hit those furrows or lips in the horizontal outcrop 
of water-bearing strata, which continue to exude 
wetness after the higher portions are dry. 

" A consideration, too, of the varying inclination 
of surface, of which instances will frequently occur 
in the same field, necessitates a departure from 
uniformity, not only in direction, but in the inter- 
vals between the drains. Take, for instance, the 
ordinary case of a field in which a comparatively 
flat space intervenes between quickly rising ground 
and the outfall ditch. It is clear that the soak of 
the hill will pervade the soil of the lower ground, 
let the system of drainage adopted be what it may ; 
and therefore, supposing the soil of the hill and flat 
to be precisely alike, the existence of bottom water 
in a greater quantity in the lower lands than in the 
higher, will call for a greater number of drains. It 
is found, too, that an independent discharge, or 
relief, of the water coming from the hill at {b) 
should always be provided, in order to avoid any 
impediment by the slower flow of the flatter drains. 

" Experience shows that, with few exceptions, 
hollows or slacks observable on the surface, as at 
(hh), have a corresponding undulation of subsoil; 



RELIEF DRAINS. Ill 

and that any system which does not provide a direct 
release for water, which would otherwise collect in 




and be drawn toward these spots, is imperfect and 
unsatisfactory. It is found to be much more safe 
to depend on relief drains, than on cutting them 
sufficiently deep through the banks at {aa)^ to gain 
a fall at a regular inclination. 

" Still, in spite of experience, we often observe a 
disregard of these facts, even in works which are 
otherwise well executed to a depth of four feet, but 
fettered by methodical rules; and I feel compelled 
to remark that it has often occurred to me, when I 
have observed with what diligent examination the 
rules of depth and distance have been tested, that 
if more attention had been paid to the source of 
injury, and to the mode of securing a permanent 
and effective discharge of the injurious water, much 
greater service would be done." 

The distances between the drains should be mod- 
ified also by the amount of annual fall of rain in 
the district. In some parts of our country the 
number of inches of yearly fall is double that in 
others. The spaces between the drains should also 



112 DEPTH AFFECTING DISTANCE. 

be regulated with reference to the mfluence of cli- 
mate on evaporation. Drains have been known to 
emit water on account of the density of the atmos- 
phere ; therefore, when the predominating weather 
is cloudy, and the air dense, much more water will 
remain to be carried off than when a bright, un- 
clouded sun increases the evaporation. Besides 
this, the intervals should dej)end upon the character 
of the soil. If the drains are forty feet apart, the 
moisture could find its way more easily and in 
quicker time through a porous than a close soil, 
because of the less degree of attraction. In the 
former the distance might be made fifty feet, while 
in the latter it would be necessary to reduce it to 
thirty or even twenty. 

The depth of the drain should also affect the in- 
tervals between them in porous soils. It is self- 
evident that a drain four feet in depth will reach 
further, and draw off the water from a greater dis- 
tance, than one of three feet in such a soil ; yet in 
clay it is not safe to rely upon it to a great extent. 
There is an argument of still more force for the 
frequency of drains in the orchard, which is seldom 
alluded to, but which is, nevertheless, a considera- 
tion of importance. It is the prevention of ohstruction 
from the roots of trees growing into the inpes. This 
sometimes occurs on account of the moisture in 
them during the summer ; and, although there have 
been few instances in which drains have been 



DEPTH OF DRAINS. 113 

stopped in their operation by the roots o^ fruit trees, 
still it is very desirable to place them so frequently 
that the water will pass off speedily and leave the 
pipes dry. 

4. The depth at ivhich drains should he i^laced. The 
first argument that we shall use for placing them 
deep is that they may be out of reach of the subsoil 
plough, or the spade of the trencher. The necessity 
for deep cultivation, in preparing the ground for the 
orchard, is considered in the chapter devoted to pul- 
verization ; suffice it now to say, that in trenching 
three feet in depth, the spade will often be plunged 
a few inches further, and that one blow might break 
a tile, and result in the stoppage of the whole 
system.-^ Then it must be remembered that as the 
air penetrates more into drained than undrained 
soils, they will freeze deeper. If we place the drain 
at four feet deep, in a retentive soil, we shall often 
find that we have not more than two or three feet 
of dry earth, on account of capillary attraction. 

The greater sphere which it gives to the roots of 
plants for their supply of food, is of itself a suffi- 
cient argument for deep draining. Of equal force 
is the fact, that it wards off the evil effects of 
drought. It may seem to some an anomaly, that to 
drain the surplus water from land would make it 
less likely to suffer from the want of it ; and yet 
such is the truth. On an imdrained soil the roots of 

1 See mode of detcctino; obstructions. 

10* 



114 



COLD SUBSOILS. 



plants do not penetrate much helow the surface. The 
cold and damp subsoil is repugnant to them ; when 
a drought occurs, and they meet the destroyer not 
only in the parched earth from above, but in the 
cold water, charged with noxious gases, from be- 
neath, what choice have they but death ? When a 
depth of four feet is prepared for the roots, they 
cannot suffer to any great extent, as the drought 
does not penetrate so deep. The following diagram 
will illustrate this ; {a) represents the surface soil 
which is deprived of its superfluous moisture by 
evaporation, and which thereby loses heat which 
would be genial to the roots of the tree ; (h) rep- 




resents the subsoil, which, although it lays above 
the surface of the stagnant water, is yet filled 
with moisture by capillary attraction, and is so cold 
that it repels the roots; yet they are obliged to 
enter it for partial protection from drought. 

The next figure represents the condition of a 



MATERIALS FOR DRAINING. 



115 



tree in a soil which is thoroughly drained ; (A) 
the surface soil; (B) the subsoil, which has now 
been much deepened, and has encouraged the roots 
to roam in its substance; (C) is that part of the 
subsoil above the drain which is rendered wet by 
capillary attraction ; (D) is the stagnant water, 
which has been reduced three feet by the drains 
which are upon its surface. 




Therefore, at a depth of four feet or more, the 
roots have a source of nutriment and moisture 
beyond the reach of a drought. 

5. The materials which should he used in draining. 
The fact must be kept in mind, in laying a drain 
for an orchard, that the trees are to remain for 
years, and therefore it would be folly to adopt a 
superficial method, which might answer for an an- 
nual crop. The question for the fruit-grower to 
ascertfiin is, what materials do, and what do not, 
make a superficial drain. Is this the case with 




116 STONE DRAINS. 

brush ] It makes a good drain for a few years, if 
properly laid, when upon strong and retentive soils; 
but upon light land it soon becomes choked with 
sediment, and is rendered useless. Is stone drain- 
ing superficial ? The blind stone drain represented 
in the following figure has the same defect as the 
brush ; that the water, in percolating 
through it, deposits fine sand, which 
fills up the interstices, and renders 
the drain inoperative. Notwithstand- 
ing stone is not the best material for 
drains, yet some prefer to use it, even 
if it is not so cheap, because it is immediately at 
hand ; and being otherwise a nuisance, its use in the 
construction of drains answers a double purpose. 
We shall therefore endeavor to illustrate the proper 
method of constructing a permanent stone drain. 
(A) represents three stones placed in 
the form of a triangle with the point 
down (boards answer a better purpose 
if laid in the same position). Some 
will suggest laying them with the 
broad side down, but experience op- 
poses this. A certain quantity of water which 
would pass sluggishly over the broad surface, and 
leave a sediment after it to obstruct the flow, would, 
if run through such a drain as is represented in our 
cut, gain considerably in velocity, the surface to 
create friction would be less, and sand which might 




HORSE-SHOE DRAIN. 117 

be washed in would be carried off. (B) is a square 
of turf, old hay, coarse gravel, tan, or sawdust 
placed over the stones to filter the water as it passes 
to the drain ; (C) is the position of the rubble, or 
small stones ; and (D) represents another layer like 
(B). The great objection to this drain is, that 
workmen, unless very careful, will lay the stones 
forming the triangle irregularly, so that one will 
act as an obstruction to the other, and thus cause a 
deposit of sediment. Boards are greatly to be pre- 
ferred on this account, especially if planed upon 
the inside, as they diminish the friction and prevent 
obstructions. 

Is tile-pipe superficial ? It is, unless baked hard, 
when it becomes the most durable and perfect 
drain. But, as there are many difi'erent ways of 
constructing them, it is necessary that we should be 
more explicit. 

The horse-shoe tile is not the most perfect, al- 
though in many parts of our country it has been 
used to a considerable extent ; yet we are assured 
that it is not the most desirable. Being open at 
the bottom, the earth often becomes pushed up in 
the interior, and partially or wholly stops the flow. 
In some instances, where obstructions have occurred, 
the drain has been opened and the pipe found com- 
pletely filled. Sometimes it is laid upoi; a sole, or 
a board ; but it is then open to the same objection 
as was the stone drain with the flat side down, — 



lis SOLE-TILE. 

that of increased friction and loss of velocity. This 
is a more serious matter than might be supposed, 
especially in a main drain ; for if several branches 
deliver into it, and the main has more velocity than 
the branches, it is evident that, in that proportion, 
can a smaller pipe be used to convey the same 
amount of water. In consequence, we lessen the 
cost of the material, as well as increase the effi- 
ciency of the work. 

The sole-tile is the best. If laid on strips of 
board it is more efficient, and in 
the hands of a skilful workman 
becomes an excellent drain. A 
square of turf, strips of waste tin, or, what is better 
than either, tarred paper, should be placed over the 
joints to keep out the sand. Many have supposed 
that the water entered mostly through the substance 
of the tile. Although this is true to some extent, 
yet the principal quantity runs in at the joints, and 
therefore it is necessary that they should be defended 
from the loose sand which often accompanies it. 
We suffix a table from the " Farm Drainage." 

TABLE H. — Showing the Cost op Sole-Tile op dipferent Sizes. 



Size. 


Cost. 


2 inches, 


$12 per 1000 pieces. 


3 " 


$18 " 


4 " 


$40 


C) " 


$r,o " " 


6 " 


$80 " 


8 " 


$12.5 " 



TABLES. 



119 



TABLE I. — Showing the Number op Cubic Yards of Earth in each Eod 
IN Length in Drains of various Dimensions. 



Depth 

in 
Inches. 


Mean WiDXir. i 


7 in. 


8 in. 


9 In. 


10 in. ! 11 in. 


12 in. 


13 in. 


14 in. 


15 in. 


16 in. 


17 in. 


18 in. 


30 


0.89 


1.02 


1.146 


1.27 


1.40 


1.53 


1.655 


1.78 


1.91 


2.04 


2.164 


2.29 


33 


0.98 


1.12 


1.26 


1.40 


1.54 


1.68 


1.82 


1.96 


2.10 


2.24 


2.38 


2.52 


36 


1.07 


122 


1.375 


1.53 


1.68 


1.83 


1.986 


2.14 


2.29 


2.244 


2.60 


2.75 


39 


1.16 


1.324 


1.49 


1655 


1.82 


1.986 


2.15 


2.32 


2.48 


2.65 


2.81 


2.98 


42 


1.25 


1.426 


1.604 


178 


1.96 


2.14 


2.32 


2.495 


2.674 


2.85 


3.03 


3.21 


45 


1.34 


1.53 


1.72 


1.91 


2.10 


2.29 


2.48 


2.67 


2.865 


3.055 


3.246 


3.438 


48 


1.426 


1.63 


1.833 


2.04 


2.24 


2.444 


2.65 


2.85 


3.056 


3.26 


3.46 


3.667 


51 


1515 


1.73 


1.95 


2.164 


2.38 


2.60 


2 81 


3.03 


3.25 


3.46 


3.68 


3.896 


54 


1.604 


1.83 


2.06 


2.29 


2.52 


2.75 


2.98 


3.20 


3.44 


3.666 


3.895 


4.125 


57 


1.69 


1.935 


2.18 


2.42 


2.66 


2.90 


3.14 


3.38 


3.63 


3.87 


4.11 


4.354 


60 


1.78 


2.03G 


2.29 


2.546 


2 80 


3.056 


3.31 


3.564 


3.82 


4.074 


4.33 


4.584 



TABLE J. — Showing the Number of Tiles necessary per Acre to lay 
Drains at different Intervals. 



Intervals 

between the Drains, 

in feet. 


Twelve-inch 
ripe. 


Thirteen-inch 
I'ipe. 


Fourtcen-inch 
ripe. 


Fifteen-inch 
ripe. 


15 


2904 


2680 


2489 


2323 


18 


2420 


2234 


2074 


1936 


21 


2074 


1915 


1778 


1659 


24 


1815 


1676 


. 1555 


1452 


27 


1C13 


1489 


1383 


1290 


30 


1452 


1340 


1244 


1101 


33 


1320 


1219 


1131 


10-56 


36 


1210 


1117 


1037 


968 1 


39 


1117 


1031 


957 


893 


42 


1037 


958 


888 


829 



TABLE K. — Showing the Number of Eods per Acre of Drains at dif- 
ferent Distances. 



Intervals between the 
Drains, in feet. 


Rods 
per Acre. 


Intervals between the 
Drains, in feet. 


Rods 
per Acre. 


15 


176 


30 


88 


18 


146f 


33 


80 


21 


1251 


36 


73^ 


24 


110 


39 


671 


27 


971 


42 


63 



120 * DRY WELLS. 

6. Manner of laying the tile and completing the 
drain. Beginning at the outlet, the trench can, of 
course, be dug as narrow as possible, only allowing 
space enough for the workman to place the tile. 
The pipes should then be laid along the bank. If turf 
is to be used for covering the joints, it should be 
cut, and immediately at hand. The size of the pipes 
for the mains must be determined by the number 
of minors and the amount of water to be conveyed. 
Generally one of four or five inches is sufficient ; 
but when it is not, two can be placed abreast, or 
one more above them. The workman, walking 
backw^ards, should commence to lay the pipe care- 
fully, securing a continuous channel, and preserving 
the proper grade by the use of the line. The joints 
are secured as the work goes on, and the earth care- 
fully shovelled in, and trodden down as hard as 
possible, to prevent the washing of the sand. 
Where the minors join the main, the junction must 
not be too abrupt, but should turn gradually, and 
enter it upon a curve, that neither may be obstructed 
by the meeting of the currents. 

There are many places where it is impossible to 
find an outlet. If wells in the vicinity do not rise 
to less than twelve or fifteen feet from the surface, 
such tracts can be drained by digging dry wells, 
and turning the water into them. 

It is very convenient to construct traps in the 
orchard when draining. These are formed by 



THE EFFECT OF DRAINING. 121 

sinking a hogshead, or, more permanently, by build- 
ing a small reservoir of brick or stone. The drain 
above leads into it, and the one below takes off the 
surplus water. These are very convenient for use 
in the orchard, and in furnishing the workmen with 
cool water. They are also interesting, as they show 
the operation of the drains. 

7. The discovery of ohstructioiis. All drains will 
sometimes become stopped, either by some animal 
which has taken refuge in the pipe, or by sediment. 
When such is the case, and the ground is wet, the 
point can generally be detected by the external 
appearance of the land. On a slope, the water will 
often burst forth upon the surface. When this does 
appear, the tile must be taken up at the obstructed 
part and cleaned. Over drains from which there is 
a continual flow of water, no crop should be planted 
whose roots will be attracted by it so as to fill up 
and choke the pipe ; but there is no danger of this 
over those whose flow is confined to the wet season, 
and after heavy rains. 

We have now considered the sources of moisture 
in the soil, and the means of removing it, and thus 
are prepared to notice the effect produced. 

It promotes pulverization. The comminution of 

the soil is of great importance, as it permits the 

free entrance of the air among its particles. Indeed, 

of so much value is this pulverization of the ground, 

11 



122 VENTILATION OF THE SOIL. 

that a system of cultivation was based upon it, and 
the effects were remarkable, even without the 
addition of the least manure. Before drainage has 
taken place, this is impossible, as the ground is so 
wet that the more it is worked the closer it becomes ; 
but when it is dry it crumbles in handling. 

The prevention of injury from droughty which we 
have already commented upon, is another benefit 
which arises from drainins:. 

The 2^ower of absorbing moisture. The dry and 
friable soil is better prepared to drink in the dews 
of the night, and thus is partially compensated for 
what it has lost during the day by evaporation. 
This is a potent source of fertility, for the air is 
freighted with fertilizing gases, which the soil im- 
bibes with the water. 

The ventilation of the soil is also accomplished by 
drainage. The earth contains substances which 
require the oxygen of the atmosphere to decompose 
and prepare them to become the food of plants. 
While the soil is filled with stagnant water, decom- 
position is arrested ; but when the air takes its 
place, it progresses rapidly. This decomposition is 
slow combustion, and therefore generates heat, which 
increases the warmth of the earth in the spring, at 
which time it is so desirable. 

It permits the warm, early showers to enter the soil 
and aid decomp>osition, by augmenting the heat of 
the ground. 



EASIER DESTRUCTION OF AYEEDS. 123 

Drained land freezes deeper. This is a matter of 
great importance to the orchardist, because the 
roots of the trees remain frozen through the winter, 
and are not liable to be affected so severely by the 
vicissitudes of the climate, which often proves so 
injurious to the fruit trees in the eastern portion of 
our country.^ 

Draining deepens the soil, and furnishes a ivide 
feeding-ground for the roots, as before shown. 

The weeds are destroyed more easily. The differ- 
ence is just that which the farmer has observed in 
killing them upon a wet and dry day. In the 
former case the earth adheres to them, and they 
soon take root again ; while in the latter, they are 
readily torn up and withered. All aquatic plants 
are also driven out. 

The trees themselves become 7nore hardg, hear more 
abundantly, and continue more healthful; the fruit 
is less liable to become spotted ; the flavor is greatly 
improved; and the trees are more uniform in groivth, 
A gentleman of England, who had drained a field 
of ten acres, desired to ascertain the practical result 
of the aeration of the soil. The field was divided 
into five sections, each containing an equal number 
of drains. Leaving that in the centre, and one on 
each side, he selected the other two for experiment, 
and conducted the termini of the drains, and sup- 
plied them with a ventilator at each end. Imme- 

1 See Exposure, p. 27. 



124 INCREASE OF HEAT. 

cliately after the conclusion of the work a heavy 
shower fell, and on the next day the difference was 
very marked in their relative dryness. The land 
was all planted with the same crop, and the returns 
from those sections which were aerated was esti- 
mated to be one-half more. 

Prof. Stockhardt, in his "Agricultural Chemistry,*' 
as translated by Dr. Henfry, thus enumerates the 
effects of drainage: 

" Wet soils become drier. All our cultivated 
plants are land plants, and these require for vig- 
orous growth a soil which has moisture, but not in 
that liquid form which it presents in standing water. 
When the latter is the case, the roots can only 
penetrate the earth to the depth at which the water 
stands, and aquatic plants are likely to make their 
appearance and displace those of land growth. 

" Some peaty soil becomes too mellow, because air 
enters it, where the water had previously been, and 
makes the humus produced by putrefaction decay 
in too soft a state. 

" Cold soil becomes warmer, for it 7ioiv retains the 
heat of the sun and air, which previously was in 
great measure expended in producing evaporation. 

" Heavy soil becomes looser, more easily crumbled, 
and softer ; when it dries, finer cracks are formed 
than in the undrained, tenacious soils, and it is 
more readily worked. 

" Sluggish soil becomes more active and powerful ; 



MANURE MORE EFFECTIVE. 125 

for, by becoming more open and warmer, the two 
great natural processes by which the food of plants 
is prepared and rendered soluble (Aveathering and 
decay) proceed more rapidly, and to a greater depth. 
Hence the same quantity of manure is more effect- 
ive on drained than on undrained land. 

" Finally, production becomes more certain. It is 
evident the farmer, by draining, changes a fickle and 
less fertile into a surer and far more iwoductive and 
grateful soil, and renders it, to a certain degree, in- 
dependent of the weather, inasmuch as he carries 
away harmlessly those extremes to which the in- 
habitants of the northern hemisphere are most 
commonly exposed. The dread that the rain and 
snow-water would wash the manure out of the soil, 
and rob it of its soluble nutriment in filtering 
through the earth, has proved quite unfounded in 
deep draining." 



ir 



CHAPTER y. 

PULVERIZATION. 

A CRUMBLING CONSISTENCY OF SOILS NECESSARY — THE IMPORTANCE 

OF PULVERIZATION — STIFFNESS OF CLAYS THE NON-RETENTION OF 

SANDY SOILS COLDNESS OF HEAVY EARTHS SUMMERS — INJURIOUS 

EFFECTS OF DROUGHT EXAMPLE OF PROPER VALUATION OF ARABLE 

SOIL THEORY OF JETHRO TULL EFFECT OF INSECTS UPON PUL- 
VERIZATION DEPTH DIGGING CIRCLES AROUND TREES DEPRECATED 

— POWER OF EXTENSION BY ROOTS DEEP CULTIVATION AFFORDS 

FRESH EARTH — MANNER OF OPERATION THE SEASON RESULTS 

OF it: rapid ABSORPTION OF MOISTURE FREE ADMISSION OF THE 

AIR THE MIXTURE OF EARTHS — THE DESTRUCTION OF INSECTS — 

THE INCREASE OF HEAT. 

A CRUMBLING consistence of the soil is a ne- 
cessary quality to the perfection of its fertility. 
A tenacious clay is unproductive because it is stiff, 
and it is therefore rendered an unsuitable pasture 
for the roots of plants. Being solid, it resists the 
attempt of the spongioles to extend themselves for 
food ; and even though there be an abundance of 
pabulum present, still, as they cannot reach it, it is 
as useless to the economy of plant life as though 
it did not exist. This tenacity of the soil prevents 
the air from penetrating and warming it, and also 
prevents the decomposition of manurial substances. 
It absorbs too much moisture, and holds it in a 



PULVERIZATION OF LIGHT SOILS. 127 

stagnant condition. We have already demonstrated, 
in the chapter on " Drainage," that water should be 
in motion, by percolation, to be beneficial. Clay 
soils, or those having such a subsoil, prevent the 
free action of drains, because the impervious clayey 
stratum holds in check the water in its flow toward 
the pipes. But this will be again considered. 

Soils are often unfertile because of their too light 
consistency. Such land may be made productive by 
pidvenz'atw7i. The idea Avhich first presents itself 
is, that such a course would render it lighter, and 
consequently more sterile. We argue, however, 
that its openness is decreased by such treatment, 
and its firmness augmented. The coarse particles 
of the soil become disintegrated by frequent ex- 
posure to the atmosphere, and they consequently 
lie more compactly in proportion as their size is 
lessened. A practical illustration is at hand. 

A gentleman, when purchasing an estate in Mas- 
sachusetts, hesitated at first, on account of the ex- 
treme lightness and sterility of the land. The 
surface-soil was but two inches in depth, while the 
subsoil consisted of but four, of light yellow, sandy 
loam, which rested upon sand and gravel. The 
depth of cultivation in the neighborhood was not 
more than from three to four inches, as the farmers 
dreaded to plough up the sand, because it was 
thought that it still more impoverished the soil. 
Contrary to these agricultural traditions, he ploughed 



128 BINDmG EFFECT OF ROOTS. 

the whole of his estate to a depth of from ten to 
twelve inches. The first year his crops were very- 
light, compared with those about him ; but still he 
persisted in frequent and deep cultivation. Six 
years after, his crops were more than double ; he 
possessed a firmer soil than any other farmer in the 
neighborhood, and that to a depth of from ten to 
thirteen inches, where formerlv existed but two. 
Not only was its fertility increased, but its capacity 
for sustaining drought was placed beyond dispute. 

Light soils both absorb and part with heat readily. 
By pulverization they become so much more com- 
pact that their capacity for the retention of heat 
and moisture is increased. Prof Stockhardt thus 
illustrates the binding effect of the roots of vegeta- 
tion upon light lands. 

" The first and principal condition of productive- 
ness in a soil is a crumbling, soft consistency, and 
this must not be lost through the operations of 
tillage. The German farmer terms this condition, 
which is especially favorable to growth, ' gahu ' 
(mellow). Whether this name be derived from ^ar, 
which means completely^ well, or from gahren (to 
ferment), it is in either case expressive, but especi- 
ally in the latter, since it is beyond doubt that 
those processes of decomposition taking place in 
the soil, which may be very properly regarded as a 
kind of fermentation, contribute essentially toward 
bringing it into this condition. What this is, and 



DECOMPOSITION OF HUMUS. 129 

how it arises, I conjecture, may be explained as 
follows : 

" In the more tenacious soils the carbonic acid 
evolved in the decomposition of humus forms a 
little cavity of humous substances; consequently 
the whole mass becomes traversed by fine pores, 
just as the carbonic acid in the fermentation of 
bread renders the tough mass of paste porous. 
The legion of animals, from the earth-worm to the 
infusorium, act in the same way, namely, to loosen ; 
since they penetrate and perforate the soil in all 
directions, as do, moreover, the roots of plants in 
proportion as the tenacity of the soil allows them 
to spread. The effect will be greatest in all these 
directions when the soil is kept for a long period 
undisturbed and in a uniform state of moisture, as 
is the case when it exists under an overshadowing 
cover of vegetation. Hence the soft and open con- 
sistence which the soil exhibits where it has borne 
clover, lucerne, rape, or lupines, or has lain fallow 
for some time. If such soil is worked while wet, 
the cavities become effaced, and the mass close and 
clammy, just as wet fermented dough would be if 
violently beaten. In freer, looser soils, or those too 
loose by nature, the earth also attains a mellow con- 
dition through the cultivation of the above-named 
crops ; in such, however, this condition is charac- 
terized by the soil becoming less loose, pulverulent, 
and consequently more cohesive. This beneficial 



130 NECESSITY OF PULVERIZATION. 

change, therefore, by which is produced a crumbling 
consistence of the soil, not however through sub- 
division, but rather by binding, is doubtless to be 
ascribed to the strong net-work of fine root-fibers, 
which can develop, spread, and ramify much more 
in the loose than in heavy and close soils." 

The importance of pulverization appears from these 
considerations. 

1. The stifi^ness of clay soils prevents the drains 
from accomplishing the work for which they were 
intended. 

2. Silicious and gravelly soils are unproductive, 
because they do not retain the heat, gases, and 
moisture, as they would if properly pulverized. 

3. Heavy earths are cold if not pulverized. They 
cannot absorb heat from the atmosphere, because it 
does not penetrate them ; and they do not receive 
it from the decomposition of manurial substances, 
as such a process is arrested by the absence of the 
oxygen of the air, and the presence of stagnant 
water. The fact that air fills pulverized and culti- 
vated land, can be proved by plunging a pot of 
earth under water, when bubbles will rise contain- 
ing the air which was forced out when the water 
ran in. 

The editor of that excellent periodical, " The 
Gardeners' Chronicle," thus beautifully illustrates 
the influence of " underground climate " : " The 



UNDERGROUND CLIMATE. 131 

roots of plants, although they burrow beneath the 
surface, are not on that account insensible to the 
influences which are felt by the stem and branches 
above. On the contrary, they are fully as sensitive, 
or even more so. If leaves and flowers wither be- 
neath the scorching air, so do roots when the earth 
around them becomes parched ; if the verdant 
foliage rejoices in the rain-drop, not less is it grate- 
ful to the earth-bound root ; if cold paralyzes the 
blossom, and compels the foliage to shrink and 
perish, roots also are affected in like manner. On 
the other hand, that w^armth which causes the 
blossom to unfold and the leaf to open its bosom to 
the gentle breath of spring, acts equally upon the 
root, exciting it to growth, and putting in action 
all the sucking force by which the leaves and flow- 
ers are nourished. Nor is the access of air less 
important to one than to the other ; both extremi- 
ties of plants feed on air, — the roots even more than 
the leaves. Place a plant where the air can gain 
no access to its leaves, and they fall off, and are 
followed by the decay of the stem. Roots, if en- 
tirely deprived of air, will gradually shrink and die. 
Hence it is that the condition of the air in the 
ground, the temperature and moisture of the soil 
itself, require to be regulated, as well as that of the 
atmosphere which rests upon it ; and thus the im- 
portance of regulating properly underground climate 
becomes evident." 



132 APwTIFICIAL HEAT. 

Heat in the earth occupied by fruit trees has 
been said by some cultivators to be so important 
that borders have been prepared, walled, and floored 
with cement, and pipes have been introduced con- 
taining it. The trees planted in soil thus prepared 
have been remarkable for their fine foliage, perfect 
fruit, and the greater maturity of their wood. This 
bottom-heat is esteemed highly by all good gar- 
deners, and its effect on many plants is wonderful. 
Compare, as an example, two specimens of the same 
species, — the one growing in an unprepared open 
soil, and the other plunged in the warm borders of 
a green-house or hot-bed. 

4. Unpulverized land is sour. Mr. Jos. F. W. 
Johntson remarks upon this subject : " Under the 
influence of air, the decomposition of the vegetable 
matters of the soil proceeds more rapidly ; it is 
more speedily resolved into those simple forms — 
carbonic acid and water, chiefly — which are fitted to 
administer to the growth of new vegetable matter. 
In the absence of air, not only does decomposition 
proceed more slowly, but the substances immedi- 
ately produced by it are frequently unwholesome 
to the plant, and therefore are fitted to injure or 
materially retard its growth. 

"When the oxygen of the air is more or less 
excluded, the vegetable matter of the soil takes this 
element from such of the earthy substances as it is 
capable of decomposing, and reduces them to a 



INCREASE OF CAPILLARY ATTRACTION. 133 

lower state of oxidation. Thus it converts the red, 
or^jer-oxide of iron, into the prot-oxide, and acts in 
the same manner upon the oxides of manganese. 
It also takes their oxygen from the sulphates (as 
from gypsum), and converts them into sulphurets. 
These lower oxides of iron and manganese are in- 
jurious to vegetation ; and it is one of the beneficial 
purposes served by turning up the soil in ploughing, 
or by otherwise loosening it, so as to allow the free 
admission of the atmosphere, that the natural pro- 
duction of these oxides is either in a great measure 
prevented, or, wdien produced, they speedily become 
harmless by the absorption of an additional dose of 
oxygen." 

5. Drought has an injurious effect on unpulver- 
ized land. 

The pulverization of the soil increases capillary 
attraction, and therefore, to a great extent, prevents 
drought. Prof Leslie found, upon investigation, 
that capillary attraction increased in an inverse 
ratio of the diameter of the soil : if the spaces were 
one hundredth of an inch, the attraction would 
extend about four inches, but with those of one ten 
thousandth, it was increased to twenty-five feet. 

The illustration of the effect of pulverization 
upon the soil in preventing drought is somewhat 
similar, as is the result, to that under the same 
head in the chapter upon draining, (a) in the figure 
represents the soil which is tilled of only a few 
12 



134 



FIRM SUBSOILS. 



inches in depth, and from which the roots draw all 
their nourishment ; (b) is an impervious stratum, 




or very firm subsoil, which the roots can hardly 
enter, and the noxious gases which it contains are 
poisonous, because the air does not gain admittance 
to it. Not only does this stratum retard the ex- 
tension of the roots downwards, but it prevents any 
benefits from accruing to the surface-soil from the 
drainage below ; (c) represents the underlying 
stratum, which was formerly filled with stagnant 
water. This was removed by the drains, and would 
add a fine and inviting field to the roots, if the 
impervious stratum could be broken up, and the 
air gain admittance ; (d) shows the position of the 
drains, which have performed their work, and yet 
the cultivator is dissatisfied because they do not, on 
account of this hard subsoil, prevent the evil efi'ects 
of drought. Thus, when a dearth of rain occurs, it 
can be readily seen that the surface-soil must be- 



VALUE OF LAND. 



135 



come parched, and the effect upon the tree be the 
same as when without efficient drainage. 




But remove the stratum (b), in the last diagram, 
and the whole earth which w^as drained is pen- 
etrated by the atmosphere, decomposition com- 
mences, heat is obtained, fertility increased, the 
drains are made efficient, and the pasture-ground of 
the roots is largely increased. 

The purchaser generally values land by the 
square foot, but the judicious cultivator estimates 
it by the cubic foot. If he wishes to increase his 
income, and is about to add to the superficial area 
of his arable land, let him consider whether the 
same amount of money spent in placing another 
acre of fertile earth immediately under that which 
he now possesses would not yield a more profitable 
return. 

Jethro Tull considered this subdivision of the 
soil as the great secret of husbandry, and thought 



136 EXPERIMENTS OF JETHRO TULL. 

that manure was superfluous. By this pulveriza- 
tion he raised several successive crops of wheat 
upon the same land, while his neighbors were com- 
pelled to resort to a rotation of crops. Considering 
the state of agricultural science at the period in 
which he lived, and the numerous obstacles which 
he surmounted in popular prejudice, and his oAvn 
enfeebled health, he is certainly entitled to great 
praise. In his " New Husbandry," he says : " It is 
without dispute that one cubical foot of this minute 
powder may have more internal superfices than a 
thousand feet of the same soil tilled in the common 
manner ; and I believe no two arable earths in the 
world do exceed one another in their natural fer- 
tility twenty times ; that is, one cubic foot of the 
richest is not able to produce an equal quantity of 
vegetables, cceteris jjartibics, as twenty cubic feet of 
the poorest : therefore, it is not strange that the 
poorest, when by pulverizing it has obtained one 
hundred times the internal superfices of the rich, 
untilled land, should exceed it in fertility. Or, if 
a foot of the poorest were made to have twenty 
times the superfices of a foot of such rich land, the 
poorest might produce an equal quantity of vege- 
tables with the rich. 

" There is another manifest advantage when a 
soil has been finely pulverized, — the roots are 
supplied with nourishment nearer to them on all 
sides than they could be if the soil was coarser, as 



THE WORK OF INSECTS. 137 

it is in common tillage ; and the roots in the one 
must extend much further than in the other to 
reach an equal quantity of nourishment ; they must 
fill ahove twenty times the space to collect the 
requisite amount of food." 

The part which insects perform in the pulveriza- 
tion of the soil is often overlooked. White, in his 
" Natural History of Selborne," remarks upon this 
subject : " The most insignificant insects and rep- 
tiles are of much more consequence, and have a 
greater infiuence in the economy of nature, than 
the incurious are aware of They are mighty in 
their efiects, from their numbers and fecundity, as 
well as from that minuteness which renders them 
so little an object of attention. Earth-worms, though 
in appearance a small and despicable link in the 
chain of nature, would, if lost, make a lamentable 
chasm. To make no mention of the birds and 
quadrupeds which are supported by them, w^orms 
are great promoters of vegetation, by boring, perfo- 
rating, and loosening the soil, and rendering it 
pervious to the rain and fibers of plants, by drawing 
straws, and stalks of leaves and twigs into it ; they 
also throw up an infinite number of lumps of earth, 
called worm-casts, which, being their excrement, is 
a fine manure for grass and grain. Worms also 
probably provide new soil for hills and slopes when 
the rain has washed the earth away. Gardeners 
and farmers often express their detestation of worms; 
12* 



138 SUBSOIL PLOUGHING. 

the former because they render their walks un- 
sightly, and cause them much work ; and the latter 
because, as they think, they eat their green corn. 
But they would find, if deprived of them, that the 
earth would soon become cold, hard-bound, void of 
fermentation, and consequently sterile." 

Mr. Mechi, of England, so distinguished for his 
appreciation of manure in a liquid form, thus enu- 
merates the benefits of pulverization in a speech 
upon deep cultivation : " Nature herself has proved 
the necessity of some degree of cultivation of the 
soil by disintegrating the surface of our globe by 
the use of the chemical aid of air and water ; by 
clothing the earth with a vegetation which was 
adapted by Almighty wisdom to its soil and climate. 
In vain does man select the most imperishable 
material as a record of his skill ; chemical affinity, 
ultimately, by the action of heat and cold, of air 
and water, decomposes and crumbles to dust the 
architectural beauties of antiquity. It is a singular 
fact, that rarely do we meet with a farmer who 
would deny the benefit of a long summer fallow 
for tenacious soils — I mean a frequent ploughing 
of the surface-soil ; and yet, how few are prepared 
to admit the advantage of a similar operation on 
the subsoil! This fact, however, can hardly be 
wondered at when we consider that the greater part 
of the heavy and hard-bottomed land of this king- 
dom [England] is undrained, or drained in too 



SUBSOILING HURTFUL WITHOUT DRAINAGE. 139 

shallow a manner to admit of subsoiling. Experi- 
ence has shown that subsoiling without previous 
draining is injurious. On undrained lands the open 
furrows act as drains to the disturbed soil ; but 
when the subsoil is broken up below, these furrows, 
having no subterranean escape for water, become 
after rains a puddled mass, into which the horses' 
feet force the upper soil, very much to its injury. 
In fact, it is a great impediment to cultivation, and 
is hurtful to the crops, and therefore drainage must 
precede subsoiling. 

" There are many reasons why a disturbance of 
the subsoil may be profitable where deep ploughing 
or digging would be ruinous. Let us beware 
against hurijing our surface-soil, which has so long 
been cultivated and manured ; if we do this, and 
bring to the surface a bad, stagnated, imdecomposed 
subsoil, we shall feel its ill effects for years. I 
speak practically in this matter ; for wherever the 
yellow, soapy subsoil of the new ditches has been 
spread on the surface, it makes a miserable seed-bed, 
and is difficult to work. Let us keep the surface- 
soil w^iere it is, for in breaking up the subsoil quite 
enough of it will become mixed with the upper. 
As the solutions of lime and manure, as w^ell as 
atmospheric influences, gradually ameliorate the 
condition of the under soil, we can year by year 
gain one inch by deeper ploughing; remembering, 
however, that this will be a hundred tons of new 



140 SOILS WHICH REQUIRE FULVERIZATION. 

earth per acre, which is a pretty strong dressing. 
I will now state what soils require deep cultivation. 
Strong, heavy, tenacious clays of almost every de- 
scription are of this class. These should be broken 
up in dry weather, because the treading of many 
horses is not then injurious ; besides, when the sub- 
soil is dry, it is torn or broken up into fragments 
and irregular masses, which freely admits the sum- 
mer heat and evening dew. If done in wet weather, 
the putty subsoil would collapse, and the surface 
become kneaded by the treading of horses. Sandy, 
silty, or gravelly soils, having a hard bottom of iron- 
sandstone, or masses of pudding-stone, are much 
benefited by subsoiling. 

" I find by breaking up these soils to the depth 
of from twenty-one to twenty-four inches, instead 
of four to five, as is usual, that all plants succeed 
better, particularly roots, green crops, and clover. 
They descend deeper, and of course are much less 
subject to injury from extreme cold or drought; 
and drainage secures them from stagnant water. 
I speak feelingly on this subject; for before I drained 
and subsoiled my land, my winter as w^ell as my 
summer crops were often injured. I am convinced 
that it is the freezing of the roots in our shallow 
soils that often destroys our clover or tares, and 
our wheat. I have traced the roots of wheat and 
tares from nine to eighteen inches below the surface, 
as early as Christmas, when the soil has been suf- 



THE PEOPER DEPTH. 141 

ficiently moved and pulverized ; and we all know 
that clover roots descend very deeply into good 
friable subsoils. The pan, or impervious mass that 
is often formed immediately below the plough, is a 
great impediment to the roots of plants ; but sub- 
soiling remedies this evil. It often requires great 
force to break up this pan ; but the advantages 
accruing from subsoiling such lands as I have 
described, are observable for several years. One 
result of deepening the staple is, that it causes a 
less rapid but more perfect development of the 
plants; their growth is prolonged, and forms a 
striking contrast to the hasty prematurity and 
inferior produce of shalloAv soils, which have a hard 
and unpulverized substratum. 

" Another advantage of subsoiling is the destruc- 
tion of deep-rooted weeds. I know of instances 
where the roots of thistles and other obnoxious 
plants, as thick as one's finger, have been disturbed 
by the fork and in subsoiling, which were merely 
pruned by the ordinary plough." 

Depth of 2^^^^verizatio7i. As was noticed under 
the last head, the more we gain in the depth of 
fertile soil, the more valuable does our land become^ 
because the root-pasture is increased. It is impos- 
sible to go too deep as long as we do not interfere 
with the drains. The usual number of inches of 
cultivation is from twenty-four to thirty-six. The 



142 LENGTH OF ROOTS. 

importance of deej) pulverization may be stated as 
follows : 

1. The range of the roots is increased. It is 
scarcely possible to limit the extent to which the 
minute roots of trees may spread themselves in 
search of food in well-prepared ground. It has 
been said by some writers that the distance from 
the trunk to the termination of the roots was the 
same as the height of the tree ; but careful investi- 
gators have discovered that fibers, invisible to the 
eye, extend far beyond this. An experiment of 
Tull's is presented which aptly illustrates this point. 



'' Two pieces of land, or ridges, were drilled with 
turnips, in rows a foot apart, and were very even in 
them ; the ground at both ends and on one side 
was hard and unploughed, and the turnips, not 
being hoed, were very poor, small, and yellow, except 
the outside three rows {he and d) which stood 
next to the ridge (e), which land, having been 
ploughed and harrowed at the time a should have 
been, gave a dark flourishing color to these three 



EXPERIMENTS WITH TURNIPS. 143 

rows. The turnips in the row (d) which stood 
furthest off from the newly-ploughed land (e) re- 
ceived so much benefit from it as to grow twice as 
large as any of the more distant rows ; the row (c), 
being a foot nearer, became twice as large as those 
in (d); but the row {h) which was next to the land 
(e) became larger still. 

" A like observation to this on the land (e) has 
been made in the turnip-fields of several farmers, 
where lands adjoining the' turnips have been well 
tilled, and all the turnips of the contiguous lands, 
which were within three or four feet, received great 
benefit, in the same manner as did the rows (b c d). 
This is a still stronger proof of the length of roots 
and the benefits of deep hoeing than the former 
illustration, as all these turnips had been well hand- 
hoed, which is a good reason why the benefits of 
the deep pulverization should be perceivable at a 
greater distance from it than in mine, because, as 
mine were not hoed at all, they had not strength to 
send out their roots through so many feet of un- 
pulverized earth, as these through the soil which 
had been pulverized by the hoe, although but 
shallowly. 

"(/) is a piece of hard ground of about two 
perches in length, and about two or three feet broad, 
lying betwixt those two lands, which had not been 
ploughed that year. It was remarkable that during 
the length of this interjacent hard ground the 



144 EXPERIMENT WITH THE WITCH-ELM. 

turnips in the rows (bed) were as small and yellow 
as any in the land. As those in the row (d), about 
three feet distant from the land (e), received a double 
increase, it proves that they drew as much nourish- 
ment from the land (e) as from (a) where they 
stood. In their own soil they must have extended 
a yard all around, or else they could not have 
reached the land (e), and it is therefore probable 
that these few roots penetrated more than another 
yard, which gave these turnips their increased size. 

" A chalk-pit, contiguous to a barn, the area of 
which was about fifty perches, was made clean, and 
swept, so that there was not even the appearance 
of a vegetable, any more than upon the barn-floor ; 
straw was then throw^n into the pit for the cattle to 
lie on. About three years after, when the dung 
which had been made thereon was hauled away, it 
was found that the top of the chalk was covered all 
over with roots, which came from a witch-elm 
which was not more than five or six yards in length 
from top to bottom, and which was about Rye yards 
above, and eleven yards from the area of the pit. 
Thus in three years these roots had extended them- 
selves eight times the height of the tree." 

If, as was perceived in the first illustration, tur- 
nips cast their roots six and nine feet horizontally 
to obtain nourishment, the distance to which a full- 
grown fruit tree will throw out its fibrous roots can 
hardly be computed. Mr. J. J. Thomas, of New 



BREADTH OF CULTURE. 145 

York, in a report to the American Pomological 
Society says, "I have just examined with some care 
the length of the roots of my dwarf pears, which 
were set out last year on my newly-occupied piece 
of ground in this village. They were two years 
from the bud when transplanted, and had received 
moderately good, but not high or rich culture. I 
found no difficulty in tracing the roots three and 
one-half feet from the trees, beyond which the fibers 
were too small to follow easily through a dry and 
tenacious soil. They had evidently extended them- 
selves over four feet, and thus, small and young as 
the trees were, they had already formed a circle of 
roots about them eight feet in diameter. I have no 
doubt that in richer and more porous soil the roots 
would have run to a greater distance. 

" A most important suggestion is afforded by this 
fact, which is, the indispensable necessity of (/reat 
breadth of culture when applied to young trees. 
These of which we have spoken were dwarfs, and 
the quince stocks on which they were grown are 
generally supposed to confine their roots to a com- 
paratively small circle; still they had already gained 
a diameter of nearly twice the height of the tree. 
The practice, then, of digging circles about the stems, 
instead of cultivating the whole surface, is compar- 
atively useless, unless those circles embrace the 
whole extent of the roots, besides the soil which 
the roots of the surrounding grass may penetrate. 
13 



146 SPADING AROUND THE TRUNK. 

It is not usual for grass plants to send out fibers 
two feet ; but, admitting the distance Oixlinarily to 
be only one foot, there must still be dug a ring a 
foot wider on every side of the tree, if we w^ould 
prevent the grass from injuring the newly-extended 
roots. Two feet added to the eight feet circle 
already required, would make ten feet, which would 
be the smallest dimension for cultivated circles for 
dwarf pears the second year after they have been 
transplanted, when surrounded by grass land. 
When the trees have grown a few more years, the 
cultivation should extend much further; in other 
words, it should cover the whole surface, and noth- 
ing less will answer under any circumstances. 

" There are many who do not cultivate their trees 
at all, but allow them to stand in ground occupied 
with weeds and grass, or hardened by summer 
drought. The roots of such trees will not, of course, 
travel very far; and they will make but little 
growth, or remain stationary. There are many 
others who think it quite sufficient to spade a small 
circle around each, according to the rule once given 
by Mr. Downing, and copied since by other writers, 
which is to extend the circle as wide as the spread 
of the branches. The heads of my dwarf pears, 
already spoken of, average two feet in diameter, 
and a circle dug of this size, according to the rule, 
would be only one-fourth the diameter of the roots, 
and extend over but a sixteenth of their surface, 
producing scarcely a perceptible benefit. 



EXPERIMENTS WITH THE PEACH. 147 

" The practice, then, of digging circles may he set 
clown as positively injurious, hy inducing cultivators 
to believe that they are doing something really 
useful, when in fact they are doing almost nothing 
at all. It should be wholly discarded, and thorough 
broadcast culture only relied upon. 

" A few^ years since I performed an experiment 
to determine definitely the distance at which the 
peach would draw nourishment through its roots. 
A dozen trees, of the same size and variety, w^ere 
set out on a piece of uniform land, and were culti- 
vated for a few years until they were about ten feet 
high, when the land was laid to grass. A portion 
of the trees were within three feet of a compost 
heap, the rest at various distances from it. Those 
standing nearest the compost made a summer's 
growth of four feet eight inches. The tree that 
stood seven feet oif, almost as far as the height of 
the tree, threw out shoots two feet five inches long. 
The next, at a distance of fifteen feet, made shoots 
fourteen inches long, while all others, twenty or 
more feet distant, grew but seven inches. 

" Thus we see that a peach tree ten feet high was 
doubled in its linear growth by a heap of manure 
fifteen feet distant, from which only a small portion 
of the roots on one side could derive any nour- 
ishment, proving conclusively that the roots must 
extend on each side to at least an equal distance ; 
that is, that they form a radiating circle of fibers. 



148 PR0DUCTI01!T OF A NEW SOIL. 

no less than thirty feet in diameter, or three times 
as great in breadth as the height of the tree. How 
perfectly futile the attempt to benefit such a broad 
surface by spading a circle two or three feet in 
diameter, which would be but a hundredth part of 
the whole area of the branching fibres ! " 

The importance of an extensive plant-pasture 
has been proved by the previous examples. Deep, 
thorough pulverization of the soil is absolutely 
essential to the growth and success of trees, and 
their fruit shows clearly whether or not this fact 
has been regarded. 

2. Deep cultivation introduces a fresh virgin soil 
from below into the old, exhausted earth above ; and 
frequently lands which are unproductive have a 
subsoil of great wealth. Rains which have perco- 
lated through the surface have carried to the under 
soil the fertility which they themselves contained, 
and much of that which was before held in the 
upper ; and, by turning and composting them, a 
soil which has never been disturbed, rich in those 
substances which the atmosphere elaborates into 
food for vegetable life, is brought up for use. But 
in some localities the subsoil contains those prop- 
erties which are decidedly noxious to plants, and 
therefore the immediate mixture of these with the 
arable earth would be an injury. When fertilizing 
substances from beneath are added to the surface 
mould, the effect is of course beneficial ; but when 



MIXTURE OF SOILS. 149 

injurious matter is known, or thought to exist, the 
mixture of the strata should not be effected until 
the drains have run for a few months to temper 
them, and reduce these elements of injury to those 
of fertility. 

The result of the mixture of soils will be consid- 
ered under our next subdivision. 

3. By deep pulverization soils become mixed. 
We agree with Mr. Johnston, that many soils are 
deficient in some qualities which are necessary to 
productiveness. Thus humus abounds to an excess 
in peaty soils, and an addition to their earthy sub- 
stance is a means of improvement. This is under- 
stood by farmers, and therefore sand or gravel is 
applied with good effect; and likewise muck or 
clay is carted upon and mixed with porous soils, 
and sand with tenacious earths. This alters their 
physical condition. It makes the clay more open, 
and the peat and sand more tenacious. A chemical 
as well as a mechanical change is effected. Often- 
times a soil is barren which contains all the ele- 
ments of fertility, with a single exception. Thus 
some lands require lime, which they might secure 




if the substratum should be mixed with the cul- 
tivated soil. Earths are often mixed by surface 
13* 



150 ADMISSION OF THE AIR. 

cultivation, as in the diagram before, when the 
porous substratum crops out ; but where a stratum 
underlies the surface-soil at a regular depth it can 
only be incorporated with it by deep ploughing or 
digging. 

4. The atmosphere is admitted to the roots, and 
consequently the fertility increased by deep cultiva- 
tion. When a boy, I discovered a hole in which a 
woodchuck had residence, and commenced to dig 
him out of his intrenchment. The space dug over 
was about eight feet square and two feet deep. A 
handful of grass-seed was scattered upon the spot, 
that our sport might not injure the mowing the 
next year, and very little hay was expected ; but it 
so far eclipsed the surrounding fields in the luxuri- 
ance ajid quality of its crop, that the whole field 
was treated in the same manner. This result must 
have been attained through admission of air to the 
soil, as no manure was applied. Prof. C. W. John- 
son says M. Saussure has shown how essential a 
free access of air is to the roots of plants. He 
" found that oxygen gas was absorbed by the roots 
as well as by the leaves, and that it is there united 
with carbon, and transmitted to the leaves to be 
decomposed. It has been proved that vegetation is 
greatly increased by nourishing it with water im- 
pregnated with oxygen gas ; hence, too, the suj)eri- 
ority of rain-water. Some recent experiments were 
made by Mr. Hill, demonstrating the great benefit 



ABSORPTION OF AQUEOUS VAPOR. 151 

plants derive from oxygen gas applied to their roots. 
This is another reason for increasing the moisture 
of the soil by deep and complete ploughings ; for 
M. Humboldt and M. Schubler have clearly shown 
that a dry soil is quite incapable of absorbing 
oxygen gas. Thus it must be evident to the most 
listless observer that the deeper and more thoroughly 
a soil is pulverized, and its earth made permeable, 
the greater will be the absorption by it of both 
oxygen and watery vapor from the surrounding 
atmosphere. 

" It is, perhaps, needless to prove that the roots 
of most cultivated plants will penetrate, under favor- 
able circumstances, to a much greater depth in 
search of moisture than they usually do, on account 
of the hardened subsoil. Thus, the roots of the 
wheat plant in loose, deep soils have been found to 
descend to a depth of two or three feet, or even 
more. It is evident, if plants are principally sus- 
tained in dry weather by the atmospheric aqueous 
vapor absorbed by the soil, that at such a time their 
supply of water at the roots must be increased, by 
enabling the atmospheric vapor and gases, as well 
as the roots of plants, to attain a greater depth ; for 
the interior of a well-pulverized soil, be it remem- 
bered, continues steadily to absorb this essential 
food of vegetables even when the surface of the 
earth is drying in the sun. The free access of air 
to the soil adds to its fertility, by promoting the 
decomposition of organic substances in it." 



152 DECOMPOSITION OF THE ROCKS. 

Prof. Voelcker, of the Agricultural Institution at 
Cirencliester, said, in a lecture on this subject : 

" Into the composition of sandy soils but a very 
small amount of those substances enter which are 
food for plants. Clay soils contain insoluble sili- 
cates ; and undecomposed materials, from which the 
clay is formed, furnish, on gradual decomposition, 
potash, which is one of the most fertilizing constit- 
uents. By working the land, fresh quantities of 
granite are brought under the influence of the 
atmosphere, and the felspar contained in it is grad- 
ually decomposed, and furnishes soluble potash. 
This benefit is not reaped from stirring a sandy soil. 
However much it is worked we cannot eliminate 
such a result from it, because there is not potash 
present in any considerable quantity ; but in many 
clay soils the supply is almost inexhaustible ; and 
they possess, to a remarkable degree, the power of 
absorbing moisture and fertilizing gases from the 
atmosphere. They also have the power of absorb- 
ing carbonic acid gas and ammonia, — two constitu- 
ents which furnish the materials on which the plant 
builds up its organic structure. 

" The more we plough the glebe, the more readily 
we give the atmosphere access to it, the more it is 
pulverized, the greater is the absorbing surface, and 
the more beneficial is the result. The advantages 
of deep ploughing, as a mode of improving clay 
soils, become more and more apparent from year 



EXPERIMENT IN TRENCHING. 153 

to year. The nature of the subsoil must determine 
whether it is more advantageous to plough at once 
very deep, or gradually to improve the condition 
of the land by going a little deeper every year or 
two, or to allow it to remain in its natural posi- 
tion." 

A gentleman in the vicinity of Boston commenced, 
about five years since, to prepare the ground for 
an orchard. The lot consisted of two acres. One 
acre and a half, which we will call (a), was trenched 
with the spade three feet deep, and the remaining 
half-acre was roughly ploughed to a depth of ten 
inches. The whole had been thoroughly drained, 
and was fertilized equally ; part of the manure 
being mixed with the soil by spading and ploughing, 
and part applied upon the surface as a dressing. 
Pear trees were planted on the whole lot. The 
first year those upon (a) were covered with beautiful 
rich foliage, increased wonderfully in stock at the 
butt, and some made a growth of a few inches. 
Those upon the ploughed ground looked sickly and 
yellow the whole season, their foliage was small and 
malformed, and they increased neither in shoot nor 
stock. The owner became so dissatisfied with the 
shallow cultivation, that he could not wait to see 
the result of the experiment, and the next fall took 
up one-half of the trees upon the improperly pre- 
pared ground and trenched it thoroughly with the 
spade, thus leaving only one-quarter of an acre 



154 MANNER OF TRENCHING. 

poorly cultivated. At the close of the second season, 
the trees upon (a) clothed themselves from top to 
bottom with rich shoots, and bore some fine fruit. 
Pears of the Winter Nelis variety weighed nine 
ounces, and several of them seven ounces, while 
some of his Duchesse d' Angouleme weighed from 
twenty-two to twenty-seven ounces. Those upon 
the second lot prepared had much the same ap- 
pearance as those upon (a) the first year; and those 
upon (c), the ploughed land, continued to look 
sickly and slender, and throwing out but here and 
there a spindling shoot. In the fifth season the 
crop from (a) was sufficient to pay the original 
cost of the whole orchard. That upon the second, 
though one year behind (a), were yet very good ; 
while the trees upon the ploughed soil were little 
larger than when they were transplanted. 

Hoiv shall the soil he pulverized ? The most 
thorough mode is that performed with the spade. 
A trench of the requisite depth, and two or three 
feet in width, is opened across the lower side of the 



land to be worked. This is represented in the dia- 
gram by (a), the earth being thrown out to (c). 
Also the surface-soil of the next space (^) is thrown 



MANNER OF TRENCHING. 155 

to (c). The subsoil at (h) is then turned into the 
trench («), at the same time being finely broken 
with the spade. The surface-soil at (d) is thrown 
on the subsoil, spaded from (b) to («), and so the 
work is continued, — the surface-soil being always 
in the same relative position as before. 

The reason for this course, rather than to turn 
the surface-soil of (h) into the bottom of the trench 
(a), and the subsoil above it, is readily found in the 
fact, that when the tree is first planted its roots 
reach but a few inches in depth into the soil, and 
they require fine earth about them, which has 
already been elaborated by the atmosphere and 
fertilized by rain and cultivation. When the roots 
find their way into the subsoil, it will have become 
tempered, purified, and fertilized. There are soils 
where the mixture of the two strata is, however, of 
decided benefit. Such is the case when a stratum 
of clay underlies a light soil, or the opposite. When 
peaty land has a subsoil of clay, their mixture has 
a remarkable efi"ect. The Farmers' Encyclopedia 
says of such mixtures : 

" There is, perhaps, no agricultural improvement 
in its immediate and permanent efi'ects more im- 
portant than the careful and judicious mixture of 
soils. This mode of improving the land was one 
which very early engaged the attention of the 
farmer. Nature herself, in fact, portrayed to him in 
very intelligible language the means of producing 



156 THE SPADE A FERTILIZER. 

the richest of soils by the mixture of the strata. 
The solid matters brought down from the distant 
hills by the flood-waters, and deposited in the val- 
leys where the w^aters rested, formed, by the mixture 
of the different strata, the rich alluvial soils of the 
old and new worlds." 

The character of the subsoil must be considered 
before a mixture is allowed. A writer says : " By 
spade husbandry, extensive districts of blowing sand 
have been brought into cultivation in Flanders ; 
while in various parts of England it has been equally 
successful ; witness, as an example, the gardens of 
the cottages of the black, hungry sands of Bagshot- 
heath, the poor chalks of Beachy Head, in Sussex, 
and the deep, trembling bogs of Lancashire. By 
many agriculturists the spade is considered the best 
instrument of fertilization, not only for gardens, but 
also for fields. The mere moving of the soil pro- 
duces incalculable benefit. By the spade, and it 
only, some of the poorest, thinnest-skinned lands of 
Surrey have, by the deep trenching of the cottagers', 
been made to produce all the common vegetables. 
'No gardener,' observed the late Dr. Fellowly, 
' would think of planting potatoes, cabbages, or 
carrots in ploughed land if he could get it dug ; 
for the difference of produce would far more than 
compensate him for the increased cost.' " 

The Hon. Marshall P. Wilder once performed 
an experiment for the purpose of determining the 



THE seaso:n- for pulverization. 157 

propriety of trenching with the spade for ordinary 
farm crops. The land was carefully pulverized to 
a depth of three feet, and was then planted with 
carrots. The result proved unquestionably the profit 
of a thorough preparation of the soil. 

But under some circumstances, such as the scar- 
city of labor, some more economical method must 
be adopted. A common plough, with two horses or 
oxen, first turns as deep a furrow as possible, and 
the subsoil plough following immediately behind it 
with four cattle, loosens the earth to from eighteen 
to twenty inches more in depth. After this loosen- 
ing of the subsoil has taken place, frequent pulver- 
ization of the surface by cross-ploughing tends to 
comminute the soil more perfectly. It is well to 
cultivate the ground for one season with some hoed 
crop before planting the trees, which loosens the 
earth still more, and gives time for the subsoil to 
become sweetened. 

The season for j)ulvenzation. The best time for 
subsoil pulverization is the autumn, because the 
frost will then penetrate the earth during the 
winter. In some localities insects nearly ruin the 
crops ; these bury themselves in the soil which is 
not disturbed. If ploughing is j)erformed in the 
autumn, these insects are exposed to the weather, 
and must nearly all perish ; but if this is done in 
the spring, they are aided in their resurrection, 
14 



158 EFFECTS OF PULVERIZATION 

appear in large numbers, and cause great havoc. 
Preparation in the fall is absolutely necessary when 
the land is to be planted the next spring ; but to 
allow the ground to remain fallow, or to cultivate 
it with hoed crops during the season before planting, 
is productive of more satisfactory results. 

The results of pulverization. It is well in every 
important work to consider the effect to be produced. 
This, as relating to comminution of the soil, is — 

1. The more ready destruction of weeds. 

2. The decrease of the tenacity of heavy, and the 
increase of it in light, soils. 

3. Greater fertility, on account of more rapid 
absorption of moisture. 

This is a very important quality in pulverized 
earths, especially in warm and dry climates. Sir 
H. Davy observed that " the power of the soil to 
absorb water by cohesive attraction depends in a 
great measure on the state of division of its parts ; 
the more divided they are, the greater is their ab- 
sorbent power." 

4. The free admission of the air to the soil. 

5. The enlargement of root-pasture. 

6. The mixture of earths. 

7. The destruction of insects. 

8. Increase of heat at the season when it is 
desirable. 

M. Alphonse de Candolle has admirably illustrated 



INCREASE OF HEAT IN THE SOIL. 159 

the effect upon vegetation of heat in the soil : " It 
has been proved, both by observation and experiment, 
that heat acts locally upon the organs of plants 
much more energetically than by transmission from 
one part to another. The best proof of this is 
afforded in the fact, that if the branch of a tree that 
is growing in the open air be protected, or intro- 
duced into a pit for exotic plants, its leaves will be 
developed before those upon the other branches. 
So, also, in the polar regions, the warmth of the air 
causes the plant to leaf and flower while the ground 
is still extremely cold. jSTevertheless, since all 
plants pump up their sap from the ground, the 
temperature of the latter is an important element. 
During great heat, it is cooler than the air ; during 
great cold, it is warmer; and the more variable a 
climate is, the greater the importance to the gar- 
dener of this phenomenon. The heating or cooling 
effect of the soil will be most sensibly felt in those 
organs which are nearest the root, in those to which 
the sap flows rapidly and copiously, and in those 
which are bad conductors of heat. Thus the tem- 
perature of the interior of the cocoa-nut differs little 
from that of the earth around its roots, because of 
the thickness of the husk, which conducts heat 
badly ; whilst, on the other hand, the young shoots 
and flowers of trees acquire the temperature of the 
surrounding air. Plants whose roots penetrate the 
earth deeply will resist vicissitudes in the surround- 



160 TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. 

ing air better than those whose roots are superficial, 
because the temperature of the earth varies less the 
deeper we penetrate it. 

" Many interesting observations have been made 
with regard to the heat of the soil at different depths; 
but, for our purpose, it is necessary only to consider 
such as extend to about three feet from the surface : 
for the roots of most plants penetrate no deeper ; 
those which do, are generally such as affect a very 
light soil; and even great trees have more root-fibres 
near the surface .than at the depth of three feet. It 
matters little to our investigations that, in our cli- 
mate, a stratum of unvarying temperature exists at 
a depth of from twenty to thirty feet ; that this 
stratum is found at three feet below the surface in 
some very uniform climates, and at much greater 
depth in such extremely cold countries as Siberia. 
We shall consider only the monthly variations in 
the upper three feet of the soil. 

" That the temperature of the soil at this depth 
is less variable than that of the air, is proved by 
Mr. Muncke's observation at Heidelberg, which 
shows that the diurnal variations are not felt beyond 
three feet, nor the monthly beyond five. At Brus- 
sels, M. Quetelet has shown that the annual varia- 
tions present the following decrease, in descending 
from the surface to a depth of three and one-fourth 
feet : 



TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. 161 

Degrees. 

Air in the shade at the surface, 62 

Air at a depth of eight inches, 56 

Air at a depth of two feet, 54^ 

Air at a depth of two feet six inches, 52^ 

Air at a depth of three feet three inches, . . . . 5U 

It further took nineteen days for the maximum and 
minimum temperature of the year to penetrate 
three and one-fourth feet; or, in other words, its 
march to this depth was nineteen days behind that 
of the surface. Prof J. Forbes has shown how 
much the rapidity of transmission, and the amount 
of heat transmitted, are modified by the nature of 
the soil ; and that, in the case of sand, the variation 
was three degrees greater, and Rye days more rapid, 
than in sandstone (terrain de gres). 

" The roots of most plants are found within a 
foot of the surface; and it is the temperature at 
this depth that should be compared with that of 
the external air. The Brussels observations supply 
us with the necessary data for every month in the 
year, and the following table exhibits the differences 
between two thermometers, one hung in the shade 
two and one-half feet above the surface of the soil, 
and the other sunk a foot below the surface, — both 
on the south side of the observatory. 

Degrees. Degrees. 

January, . . . +41 July, .... — 2^ 

February, ... August, .... — 3i 

March, . . . —3} September, ... 0! 

April, .... —41 October, . . . . +2 

May, .... —2^ November, ... +4 

June, .... —2i December, . . . +4 

14* 



162 TEMPERATURE OF THE SOIL. 

Degrees. 

Mean of the year, Of 

Winter, +2^ 

Spring, -3,^ 

Summer, — 2f 

Autumn, +11 

" Hence it appears that from the middle of 
autumn to the end of winter the temperature of the 
soil is warmer than that of the air at the mean 
depth of the roots; and that, on the contrary, at 
the season when the plant is at it greatest vigor, it 
is colder than the air. In the one case, the maxi- 
mum difference between the soil and the air occurs 
in January, and in the other during one of the 
summer months. In no case does it exceed six and 
one-half degrees. At the end of winter and begin- 
ning of autumn, periods occur when there is no 
difference between the temperature of the air and 
soil. This fact, combined with that of the resuscita- 
tion of vegetable life in spring and its withdrawal 
in autumn, seems to indicate some direct adaptation 
of the cooler soil to the wants of plants at that 
season of the year. The difference is always greater 
in summer than in spring, and vegetation is not 
then more active than in April or May in the lati- 
tude of Brussels. During winter, a difference of 
four or five degrees can have but very little influ- 
ence in diminishing the effects of cold ; for the sap 
scarcely moves at that season, and the effect of 
conduction from the roots to the branches must be 
extremely small. 



THE PREVENTION OF DROUGHT. 163 

" During summer, a mean monthly difference of 
five and even six degrees is of considerable impor- 
tance ; and even sup230sing it to be reduced to half 
that amount by the time the sap has reached the 
leaves, it still lowers very perceptibly the tempera- 
ture of the whole plant. This effect is increased 
by that evaporation from the leaves which results 
from the descent of the sap during the day ; so that 
the hotter the air is, the greater are the resources 
w^hich the plant finds within itself, and the earth in 
which it grows, for diminishing the effect of external 
heat." 

The prevention of drought. Mr. John Sincham, in 
his work for the use of the engineer, thus enumer- 
ates the effects of pulverization : " It makes the 
drains efficient almost immediately and perma- 
nently. It enables the crop to be planted and 
harvested much earlier. It is the first and great 
step towards increasing the depth, and improving 
the condition of all light, bad soils. It allows the 
atmosphere to penetrate and circulate freely through 
the soil, and admits carbonic acid gas and oxygen 
to the roots of plants, to act upon the deleterious 
ferruginous compounds and secretions to be found 
in most soils. It secures also to them benefit from 
every drop of rain that passes through the atmos- 
phere." 



CHAPTER VI. 

FERTILIZATION. 

SELECTIVE POWER OP PLANTS FORM IN WHICH FOOD IS TAKEN UP 

EXCRETION — CIRCULATION OF THE SAP — ORGANIC SUBSTANCES: 

OXYGEN, HYDROGEN, CARBON, NITROGEN INORGANIC SUBSTANCES 

MANURES ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT SOILS : TO CLAYS, TO PEATY SOILS, 
TO SANDY LANDS — PLANTS TO BE USED IN GREEN-MANURING APPLI- 
CATION OF MANURES. 

"DLANTS, like animals, show a preference in the 
selection of their food. They reject some sub- 
stances, and elect others adapted to their nourish- 
ment. 

Their food is supplied in two forms — liquid and 
gaseous. It has been stated by some writers that 
the former is absorbed by the roots, and the latter 
exclusively by the leaves. While this in the main 
is in accordance with observation, yet the roots do 
also absorb gaseous food, often in considerable quan- 
tities, especially in a well pulverized and thoroughly 
drained soil. 

The cells through which the sap flows are, in 
their original and simplest form, cellulose, or par- 
enchyma. Toward the root, the sap in these cells 
is thin ; but at the leaves it becomes thickened by 
the decomposition of its water and the elimination 



CIRCULATION OF THE SAP. 165 

of its oxygen. Thus there is constantly going on 
between the cells a process like that which may be 
observed if a membraneous bag containing a thick 
fluid should be immersed in w^ater, — the thick 
becomes thinner by the absorption from the latter, 
or endosmose, while the water derives a small 
quantity of the former. Hofmeister discovered that 
this w^as the cause which produced the circulation 
of the sap from the root to the leaf, and that the 
little white fibres, styled spongioles by old writers, 
which were emitted during each season of growth, 
were formed of cells not covered by the thick skin 
or epidermis of the older roots, and that they absorb 
the thin fluid of the soil, w^hich contains pabulum 
in solution. Thus a regular grade of elaboration, 
or thickness of the sap, is established from the leaf 
to the roots. These absorbing cells, after having 
performed their work for one season, become cov- 
ered with the epidermis, and cease to provide for the 
growth of the tree. This should be borne in mind 
by the cultivator when he applies his manure to the 
ground about his trees. The feeding roots are at a 
considerable distance from the trunk of the tree, 
and if applied near it, scarcely any benefit will 
accrue. 

Hoots have been said to excrete substances ab- 
sorbed, which were unnecessary or injurious. This 
was the belief of De Candolle, and others. It was 
formed from the fact that a plant will not succeed 



166 SELECTIVE POWER OF PLANTS. 

where one of the same species had been previously 
growing for any length of time, and that substances 
existed in that soil which were not to be found in 
other parts of the field. But this is by no means a 
sufficient proof, because we should expect that if 
the existing combinations were separated, others 
would be formed. 

That the roots possess a general power of selec- 
tion, we are led to believe from the fact that the 
ashes of various species differ so widely even when 
the plants are grown upon the same soil. It is 
probably confined to the combinations which the 
plant meets with in its indigenous soil, and does 
not apply to those artificial substances which are 
sometimes applied, nor to the tree when placed in 
an unnatural position. Thus, the application of a 
large quantity of iron to the roots of a plum tree, 
resulted in a dark-colored exudation from its bark ; 
and the colors of flowers are often changed by the 
substances placed in the soil. 

It will be well to examine more particularly the 
structure of those organs of the plant which perform 
the function of digestion. The upper surface of the 
leaves, and all green parts of other portions of the 
tree, exhale the oxygen contained in their sap, while 
the under surface of the leaves inhales carbonic acid 
and some other fertilizing gases from the atmos- 
phere. The cells, on the upper surface, are there- 
fore very close, to prevent excessive evaporation, 



THE MULTIPLICATION OF CELLS. 167 

while on the under surface they are placed loosely 
to admit gases freely. Thus this figure ^ represents 




a cut made through the thickness of the leaf, exhib- 
iting its edge highly magnified. 

(a) denotes the epidermis ; 

(6) a close layer of parenchyma ; 

(c) internal cells ; 

(d) the cells of the lower surface ; 

(e) stomates, or valves through which the gases 
enter. 

As the sap descends in the liber by gravitation, 
it causes the multiplication of cells between the 
bark and wood. Every cell contains within itself 
a nucleus, from which the sap fiows toward the 
walls ; this contains several nucleoli, or cytoblasts, 
which, when they have attained size, burst the nu- 
cleus, and each becomes like its parent. Conse- 
quently, if there are two nucleoli, each creates a 
current acting counter to the other, and at their 
point of contact a membrane is formed which divides 
the old cell. This is very rapid work. We can 

1 Dr. Lindlcy's Introduction to Botany. 



168 ORGANIC FOOD. 

form very little idea of the wonderful mechanism, 
or the rapidity of its motion, which exists in the 
interior of a fruit tree. These cells are very minute, 
— many of them not more than one-thousandth of an 
inch in diameter, — and yet grape vines in a warm 
house often grow from one to two inches on the 
end of each shoot per diem. 

It must he manifest to all that plants, as well as 
animals, require food. It remains for us to examine 
its nature and adaptation. When a plant is burned, 
a part escapes into the atmosphere, and a part re- 
mains in the ash. The first we shall call organic, 
and the latter inorganic, 

I. ORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 

1. Oxygen, Mr. Johnston thus states the sources 
of this gas : " The water which plants imbibe so 
largely consists of this gas in great part, being eight- 
ninths of its whole weight. In this form it is easily 
decomposed, and yields an inexhaustible supply. 

" The atmosphere contains twenty-one per cent., 
and the leaves of plants, in certain circumstances, 
are known to absorb it. 

" Carbonic acid contains seventy-two per cent, of 
oxygen by weight, and this gas is known to be 
absorbed in large quantities from the atmosphere 
by the leaves of plants ; while in solution with water, 
it is absorbed by the roots. 



OXYGEN AND HYDROGEN. 169 

" From any one of these sources an ample supply 
of oxygen can readily be obtained ; and it may be 
considered as a proof of the vast importance of this 
element to the maintenance of animal and vegetable 
life, that it is everywhere placed abundantly within 
their reach. It is from the first of these sources, 
however, — water, — that plants derive their prin- 
cipal supply. 

2. Hydrogen. " This elementary substance is not 
known to exist in nature uncombined. Therefore 
it must, like carbon, enter plants in union with 
some other element. 

" Water consists of hydrogen in combination with 
oxygen. In the form of vapor, this compound per- 
vades the atmosphere, and plays among the leaves 
of plants ; in the liquid state it is difi'used through 
the soil, and is unceasingly absorbed by the roots 
of all living vegetation. In the cells of plants — at 
least during their growth — water is continually 
undergoing decomposition ; and this is unquestion- 
ably the principal source of the hydrogen which 
enters into the constitution of their several parts. 
In explaining the properties of water, we have 
already referred to the apparent facility with which 
its elements are capable either of separating from 
or of reuniting with each other in the vascular 
system of animals or plants. 

" In light, carburet ted hydrogen, given oif during 
the decay of vegetable matter, and said to be always 
15 



170 AMMONIA. 

present in highly-manured soils, hydrogen exists to 
the amount of nearly one-fourth of its weight. On 
the extent, therefore, to which this gaseous com- 
pound gains admission by the roots into the plant 
will depend the supply of hydrogen which they are 
capable of drawing from this source. Had w^e sat- 
isfactory evidence of the absorption of this gas by 
the roots or leaves of plants in any quantity, we 
should find no difficulty in admitting that plants 
might from this source easily obtain a considerable 
supply of both carbon and hydrogen. We could 
also explain how, that is, by what chemical changes, 
it is capable of being so appropriated ; but the 
extent to which it really acts as food for vegetables 
is entirely unknown. 

"Ammonia is another compound containing much 
hydrogen (one equivalent of nitrogen to three of 
hydrogen), which exercises a manifest influence on 
the growth of plants. If this substance enters into 
their circulation in any sensible quantity, — if, as 
some maintain, it be not only universally difl'used 
throughout nature, but is constantly affecting mid 
influencing at all times the functions of vegetation, 
— there can be no doubt that the hydrogen it con- 
tains must, to an equal extent, be concerned in the 
production of the various organic substances which 
are formed or elaborated by the agency of vegetable 
life. The quantity of ammonia which actually 
enters the circulation of plants in a state of nature 



AMMONIA. 171 

is too little known, and, making the largest allow- 
ance, probably too minute, to permit us to consider 
it as an important source of hydrogen to the general 
vegetation of the globe." Ammonia is, however, a 
powerful agent in hastening the fermentation of 
such materials as are to become plant-food. This 
it does, according to some authors, directly, and to 
others, by acting as food to the little fungi which 
do the work. The value of this compound has, no 
doubt, been greatly exaggerated by some writers, 
who have estimated the worth of fertilizers accord- 
ing to the amount which they contained. It is true 
that it acts as a stimulant to plants, and perhaps 
as a solvent for humus. As a writer in the Gar- 
deners' Magazine states : " Notwithstanding Liebig, 
Johnston, and Schlieden object to this, on account 
of the ease with which the humates are decomposed, 
yet this process may be going on constantly, and, 
being immediately absorbed by the roots of the 
plant, this may aid it in building up its structure. 
But while Liebig argues that ammonia is derived 
from the air, there seems to be abundant evidence 
that a portion is also received from the soil. Yet 
the fact, as stated by some, that ammonia is fur- 
nished exclusively from the soil, cannot be correct. 
Both supply it, probably in varying proportions, 
according to the necessities of the plant." 

Therefore the cultivator should be careful to 
preserve this extremely volatile substance in his 



)( 



172 GUANO. 

manure-heap ; and this can be done only by giv- 
ing it absorbents, such as peat, sawdust, tan, sods 
from headlands, loam, or gypsum. Urine is rich in 
ammonia, and should not be allowed to run to 
waste. Often the drainings from the manure-heap 
containing it are permitted to flow away unmo- 
lested. Unless the soil naturally contains a quan- 
tity of humus, or has been well manured, fertilizers 
containing this substance largely — such as night- 
soil, guano, or urine — cannot be recommended for 
exclusive application in large quantities. Although 
experiments have been cited where land has perma- 
nently retained its fertility under an annual dressing 
of guano, yet the experience of most farmers has 
been to the effect, that such treatment produces a 
certain want of life, and in the end barrenness, 
while if mixed with the compost-heap it is calcu- 
lated permanently to increase growth. If it is 
desirable to stimulate the vigor of the tree, the 
application of such manures may be well, otherwise 
they should be withheld. 

Mr. Johnston again says : " The soluble organic 
substances which enter the circulation of plants 
through the roots consist not only of carbon and 
water, but of combinations of hydrogen and oxygen 
in various proportions. From these substances, 
therefore, plants derive an uncertain and indefinite 
supply of hydrogen in a state already half organized, 
and probably still more easily assimilated or con- 



CARBON-. 173 

verted into portions of their own substance than 
when this element is combined with oxygen in the 
form of water. 

"We may conclude generally, in regard to the 
source of the oxygen of plants, that though there 
are undoubtedly several other forms of combination 
in which this element may enter their circulation 
in uncertain quantity, yet that all-pervading water 
is the main and constant source from which the 
hydrogen of vegetable substances is derived. 

3. Carbon, " We have reason to believe that 
carbon is incapable of entering directly, in its solid 
state, the circulation of plants. There are two 
sources from which it can be obtained, — the soil 
in which the plant grows, and the air by which its 
stem and leaves are surrounded. In most soils 
much vegetable matter is present, and large quan- 
tities are added by the manures used. It is true, 
however, that plants are really fed by the vegetable 
matter existing in the soil. 

[a) " We know from sacred history, what reason 
and science confirm, that there was a time when no 
vegetable matter existed in the soil. The first 
plants must have grown without the aid of either 
animal or vegetable matter ; that is, they must have 
been nourished from the air. 

(6) " It is known that certain marly soils, raised 
from a great depth beneath the surface, and con- 
taining apparently no vegetable matter, will yet, 
15* 



174 VEGETABLE MATTER OF THE SOIL. 

without manure, yield luxuriant crops. The carbon 
in such cases must also have been derived from the 
air. De Saussure found that two beans, when veg- 
etated in the open air on pounded flints, doubled 
the weight of the carbon which they originally 
possessed. 

(c) " Some plants grow when suspended in the 
air without contact with the soil. 

(d) " When lands are impoverished, we lay them 
down to grass, and the longer they lay undisturbed 
the richer in vegetable matter does the soil become. 

" In certain extreme cases, as in those of plants 
growing in soil perfectly void of organic matter, 
this conclusion" (that they draw all their carbon 
from the atmosphere) " must be absolutely true. 
But is it as strictly true of the more usual forms of 
vegetable life, or in the ordinary circumstances in 
which plants grow spontaneously, or are cultivated 
by the art of man '( Has the vegetable matter of 
the soil no connection with the growth of the tree '? 
Does it yield them no regular supplies of nourish- 
ment 1 Is nature working in vain when preparing 
all this vegetable mould in the soil ] 

" The consideration of one or two facts will show 
that our general conclusion must be modified. 
Plants in certain circumstances will grow in a soil 
containing no sensible quantity of organic matter ; 
but it is also true, generally^ that they do not luxu- 
riate, or readily ripen their seed in such a position. 



CARBON. 175 

" It is consistent with almost universal observa- 
tion that the same soil is more productive where 
organic matter is present than where it is absent ; 
that if a crop be carried off the field, less organic 
matter is left in the soil than it contained when it 
began to grow ; that by constant cropping the soil 
is gradually exhausted of organic matter. The 
conclusion, therefore, seems to be reasonable and 
legitimate, that the vegetation which we remove 
from a field has not derived all its carbon from the 
air, but has extracted a portion of it immediately 
from the soil. It is to supply the supposed loss of 
carbon, as well as other substances, that the prac- 
tical farmer applies manure to his land. Supposing 
it to be established that the whole of the carbon 
contained in plants has originallij been derived from 
the air, we have only to inquire in what state this 
element exists in the atmosphere in order to satisfy 
ourselves as to the form of combination in which it 
is, and has been received into the circulation of 
plants. Carbonic acid, a compound of carbon and 
oxygen, is always present in the atmosphere, though 
in comparatively small quantities; yet it is every- 
where to be detected, while no other compound of 
carbon is to be found there in any appreciable 
quantity. We must conclude that from this gaseous 
carbonic acid the whole of the carbon contained in 
plants has been primarily derived. But in what 
state or form of combination do they absorb carbon 
from the soil? 



176 NITROGEN. 

"The most abundant product of the decay of veg- 
etable matter m the soil is this same gas. In land 
replete with vegetable matter, therefore, the roots 
are surrounded by an atmosphere more or less 
charged with it. Hence, if they are capable of in- 
haling gaseous substances, this will enter the roots 
in the aeriform state ; if not, it must enter in solu- 
tion. 

4. Nitrogen. " The question as to the form in 
w^hich nitrogen enters the circulation of plants, at 
the present moment engages much attention. 

" It is considered an essential part of good tillage 
to break up and loosen the soil, in order that the 
air may have access to the dead vegetable matter, 
as well as to the living roots, which descend to 
considerable depths beneath the surface. When 
thus admitted to the roots, some of the nitrogen of 
the atmosphere, as well as a portion of its oxygen, 
will undoubtedly be directly absorbed and appro- 
priated by the plant. To what extent this absorp- 
tion of nitrogen may proceed we have as yet no 
experimental results from which we can form an 
estimate ; — whether it takes place at all or not, is 
wholly a matter of opinion. 

" The leaves of plants absorb certain gaseous sub- 
stances from the atmosphere, and we might there- 
fore expect that some of the nitrogen of the atmos- 
phere would by this means be admitted to their 
circulation. This view is not confirmed by any of 



KITROGEN. 177 

the experiments hitherto made with the view to 
investigate the action and function of the leaves. 
We are not at liberty, consequently, to assume that 
any of the nitrogen which plants contain has been 
derived in this way directly from the air. It may 
be the case, but it is not yet proved. 

" There is little doubt, however, that nitrogen 
enters the roots of plants in a state of solution, but 
the quantity they thus absorb is uncertain. When 
water is exposed to the air in an open vessel, it 
gradually absorbs oxygen and nitrogen, though in 
proportions different from those in which they exist 
in the atmosphere. The whole quantity of the 
mixed gases thus taken up, according to Humboldt 
and Guy Lussac, amounts to about four per cent, of 
the bulk of the water, and in rain-water about two- 
thirds of this consists of nitrogen. One hundred 
cubic inches of rain-water will therefore carry into 
the soil about two and two-third inches of nitrogen 
gas." 

These organic substances were all originally pos- 
sessed by the air. The first forms of vegetation 
which existed upon the earth were those whose 
roots simply served to hold them in position, or to 
draw very slightly from the earth. All the organic 
elements of growth were to be easily absorbed by 
those which were aquatics from the water which 
surrounded them, and by land-plants from the 
atmosphere. These, by their death, imparted to the 



178 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 

soil organic elements, and upon the remains of their 
decomposition sjDrung up what we call higher orders 
of vegetable life. These gave way to others ; and at 
last, from the death of these numerous generations, 
the soil became supplied with organic elements, 
and then the fruit tree appeared ; not according to 
the Darwinian theory, by development one from 
another, but by independent creations of the great 
Designer. 

Barren sandy lands are unproductive because 
they do not contain these organic substances. We 
shall consider the method of supplying them in the 
proper place. 

n. INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 

These are found only in the soil, and although 
many of them enter in very small quantities the 
organism of plants, they are none the less impor- 
tant. One link, however small it may be, is neces- 
sary to the completion of a chain ; just so a one- 
thousandth part of some inorganic substance is 
demanded by the plant to perfect its structure. 
The names of these inorganic substances are as 
follows : 



Substance 


Produced by combining 


Allumina, 


Oxygen, 


Aluminum, 


Lime, 


Oxygen, 


Calcium. 


Chloride of Calcium, 


Chlorine, 


Calcium. 


Chlorides, 


Metals, 


Chlorine. 


Iodides, 


Metals, 


Iodine. 


Oxides, 


Oxygen, 


Iron. 



INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 



179 



Substance 


Produced by combining 


Sulphurets, 


Sulphur, 


Iron. 


Magnesia, 


Oxygen, 


Magnesium. 


Oxides, 


Oxygen, 


Manganese. 


Sulphurets, 


Sulphur, 


Manganese. 


Phosphoric Acid, 


Oxygen, 


Phosphorus. 


Potash, 


Oxygen, 


Potassium. 


Chloride of Potassium, 


Chlorine, 


Potassium. 


Silica, 


Oxygen, 


Silicon. 


Soda, 


Oxygen, 


Sodium. 


Chloride of Sodium, 


Chlorine, 


Sodium. 


Sulphurets, 


Metals, 


Sulphur. 


Sulphuretted Hydrogen, 


Hydrogen, 


Sulphur. 


Sulphuric Acid, 


Oxygen, 


Sulphur. 



Allumimmi^ is a very rare metal. 

AUumina is very abundant, especially in clay soils. 
It is soluble in acids, but not in water. The pro- 
portion of it which plants absorb is exceedingly 
small, and, from its abundance in the soil, would 
lead one to suppose that it possessed some more 
indirect and important quality, probably that of 
the absorption of ammonia. 

Phosphate of alumina is present in the soil in very 
small amounts. 

Sulphate of alumina exists in swampy, peaty soil. 

Calcium^ in its combination with oxygen, forms 
one of the most important of inorganic compounds. 

Lime. Many substances proceed very slowly in 
their decomposition which is hastened by the ap- 
plication of lime. 

Carbonate of lime forms a part of almost all plants, 
and is very important to their growth. 



1 Johnston. 



180 INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. 

Chloride of calcium also has a wonderful effect 
upon many crops. 

Siilj)hu7'et of calcium is produced by the agency 
of heat acting upon calcium and sulphur. 

Sulphate of lime. This compound of sulphur and 
lime is very valuable as a fertilizer, and has caused 
lands which before had defied all attempts to render 
them productive to bring forth fine crops. Besides 
its other properties, it possesses that of absorbing 
ammonia from the air. 

Nitrate of lime is found in the soil, and is of con- 
siderable value, but is very soluble. 

Phosphate of lime is the substance from which the 
bones of animals are formed, and is important as a 
manurial substance. It is soluble only in acids, 
when it becomes super-phosphate of lime. 

Chlorine^ in combination with hydrogen, forms 
muriatic acid, which dissolves many of those sub- 
stances of the soil that are insoluble in water, and 
prepares them to become the food of plants. 

Iodine is beneficial to vegetation when combined 
with sodium. It is soluble, and exists largely in 
the waters of the ocean. 

Oxides of iron. Iron combines in two different 
proportions with oxygen. One is called prot-oxide, 
and possesses about twenty-three per cent, of oxygen. 
This is very injurious to plants ; but by exposure 
to the air it assimilates with more oxygen, and 
becomes per-oxide, in which state it is a powerful 
absorbent of ammonia. 



INORGANIC SUBSTANCES. . 181 

SidpJiuret of iron exists in some undrained soils, 
and although not itself injurious, yet, when exposed 
to the air, it produces the sulphate of iron, or green 
vitriol, which is decidedly hurtful to plant-life. 

If the land is thoroughly pulverized and drained, 
this will become the per-oxide, which is so beneficial 
a compound. 

Carbonate of magnesia exists in many soils, and 
has great powers of absorbing moisture. 

Chloride of magnesium has been applied with 
benefit to lands, but great care must be exercised 
on account of its remarkable solubility. 

Phosphate of magnesia is present in urine, and in 
many of our most valuable fertilizers. 

Manganese resembles iron in its action and char- 
acter, and in forming several combinations with 
oxygen. 

Phosphorus, when combined with other substances, 
forms many valuable compounds — such as phos- 
phate of lime, phosphate of potash, etc. 

Silica produces many valuable substances in its 
combination with potash, soda, etc. It is present 
in all vegetable matter, and is distributed very lib- 
erally through the soil. It is insoluble in water, 
and dissolves very slowly in alkalies. 

Carhonate of potash exists in the sap of almost all 
plants, and the good results following the applica- 
tion of wood ashes are produced by its presence. 

Chloride of potassium is also found in the ashes 
16 



/,_. 



182 , ADAPTATION OF MANURES. 

of most plants, and its action upon them as a manure 
is beneficial. 

Nitrate of ijotasli. This is a most important sub- 
stance in hastening the growth of plants. It is 
formed of nitric acid and potash, and is commonly 
known as saltpetre. 

Chloride of sodium^ or common salt, is found in 
all plants. It exists in largest quantities in lands 
which lie near the seacoast. 

Sulphate of soda has a good effect upon many 
plants. 

Carbonate of soda in its various forms, as sesqui- 
carbonate, bi-carbonate, and in the simple form, is 
also beneficial. 

Phosphate of soda is another important constituent 
of urine. 

Sulphuric acid is rarely met with in the soil, 
except in union wdth other substances, forming 
sulphates with potash, lime, soda, etc. 

These are the compounds which usually exist in 
the soil ; but land may have an abundance of some 
of them, while it is entirely destitute of others, or 
of the means of producing them. This should guide 
us in the consideration of the next division of our 
subject. 

m. MANURES ADAPTED TO DIFFERENT SOILS. 

Accurate chemical analysis can alone ascertain the 
exact substance which is wanting ; but we doubt 



CLAY AND PEAT SOILS. 183 

if this is always practicable. We can merely con- 
sider generally those manures which experience has 
proved to produce the best mechanical as well as 
chemical effect on a soil of a certain general char- 
acter. 

Cla^/ earths. These have a great amount of fer- 
tility stored in them ; but they are often so tenacious 
as to prevent the entrance of the air, which is im- 
portant to the production of valuable compounds. 
This is partially remedied, as we have seen, by 
thorough draining and pulverization ; but a still 
further benefit can be realized by an application of 
sand to the depth of from one-half an inch to an 
inch mixed with the surface, thus not only produc- 
ing a mechanical effect by loosening the soil, but 
inducing a chemical change by the introduction of 
air. In such cases very coarse sand is to be pre- 
ferred; that which is rich in lime is the best, as 
by its fermentation it produces still greater porosity. 
Horse-manure, and others which ferment rapidly, 
lime, marl, etc., are best for such land. 

Peaty soils are also benefited by applications of 
sand or fine gravel. On such lands many plants 
fail to succeed because the carbon contained in the 
humus absorbs the oxygen as it enters the earth to 
form from it carbonic acid. By the increased po- 
rosity produced by sand, oxygen is not only pre- 
sented to the roots, but the decomposition of the 
humus is hastened. Manures possessing vegetable 



184 APPLICATION OF LIME. 

matter would be superfluous, as such soils already 
contain a sufficiency ; but an application of lime 
would be beneflcial. That which is generally used 
for agricultural purposes contains carbonate of lime, 
wdth many other substances, which fact accounts 
for its varied efi'ects upon difl"erent soils. 

When it is caustic, or has disposed of its carbonic 
acid from burning, it is particularly desirable. To 
prolong this condition, and prevent its absorption 
of carbonic acid and other substances, it should be 
mixed with the surface-soil as soon as possible. 
Lime should not be applied in too large quantities, 
else the humus will be decomposed faster than the 
crop could use it, and the application would be- 
come in the end a means of impoverishing the soil. 
On very stiff clay soils as much as five thousand 
pounds has been applied to the acre with benefit, 
while light land would not be improved by more 
than three or four hundred pounds. On marshy 
land about twelve hundred weight is sufficient. It 
should be used in summer, as it can then be more 
intimately mixed with the surface-soil. 

The cultivator should be warned against the use 
of lime, if he has not thoroughly drained his land, 
unless he desires to bring it to the consistency of 
mortar. The length of time in which it acts upon 
the soil varies according to the quantity used ; but 
the average is from six to ten years. It should be 
first slacked in small quantities, by covering with 



ACTION OF LIME. 185 

earth ; then thoroughly composted with loam spread 
over the land ; ploughed m at first only an mch or 
two, and then deeper, to mix it perfectly. The ap- 
plication should never be made in wet weather. 

Dr. Dana states that the action of lime on soils 
is threefold : " First, it is a neutralizer ; second, a 
decomposer; third, a converter. 1. There are cer- 
tain acids which are free in the soil, such as phos- 
phoric, acetic, or malic, which become neutralized 
by the lime. 2. There are certain substances which, 
for want of decomposition, are locked up, and are 
therefore useless to plants ; but lime, by forming a 
combination with them, decomposes and retains 
them in a state in which they can be easily dis- 
solved. 3. Lime also acts upon humus, to render 
it soluble plant-food, by converting it into acid. 
Therefore, if plants such as sorrel are produced by 
land, it is evidence that lime is needed to neutralize 
these free acids in the soil. The more humus a 
soil contains, the more lime will it need to convert 
the insoluble matter and undecayed vegetable fibre 
into decomposed and soluble food. When a great 
amount of lime is applied, manure must also be 
added, because the first is not the food itself, but 
the fuel which prepares it for use. Lime does not 
revive worn-out land, but gives it the means of 
using the manure." 

Lime is often applied in a cheap form, as marl. 
This widely differs in composition ; but that which 
16* 



186 SANDY SOILS. 

crumbles is the most valuable. The effects are 
quickly seen, and of short duration ; but this is no 
objection, for it is as important to the farmer as to 
the capitalist to receive quickly the returns from 
his investment. 

Sandy lands are improved by mixture with sub- 
stances containing humus, or vegetable matter. 
Chief among these is peat, which is so generally 
found in the temperate zone. ^ Martin Doyle's 
Cyclopaedia of Practical Husbandry gives Lord 
Meadowbanks's method of rendering peat a profita- 
ble manure. His suggestion is, to " form a layer 
of peat, which had been previously in a dry state, a 
little longer than the intended midden, six inches 
thick ; and on this to lay fresh dung and peat, in 
alternate courses, diminishing each layer of dung 
from ten inches in thickness, until the compost is 
three or four feet high, when it should be covered 
from the ends (which should be formed to overlap 
for the purpose) and the sides with peat. His 
lordship's proportion is, one load of dung to three 
of peat, in mild or warm, and a little more dung in 
cold weather, so as to produce a full and generous 
fermentation, which in summer will be so rapid 
and violent as to require an additional application 
of peat. The heap should be turned upside down, 
thoroughly mixed, and all the lumps broken a few 
weeks before using, after which it ferments mod- 

1 Gardeners' Chronicle of 1843, p. 39. 



VEGETABLE SUBSTANCES AS MANURE. 187 

erately a second time, and then presents the ap- 
pearance of garden mould, and equals farm-yard 
manure." 

One of the most economical methods of applying 
vegetable matter to the soil is by the use of green 
crops. Sir Thomas A. Knight, in his experiments 
upon manures, found that seeds germinated and 
grew more rapidly which had been manured with 
green vegetable substances ; and he argues from this 
that it was because the plant found there the sub- 
stances suited to its nutrition in a state of elabora- 
tion nearer to that in which they existed in itself; 
and that it was upon the same principle that car- 
nivorous animals were nourished by the flesh of 
other animals more than by the materials which 
constituted the food of their prey. 

Dr. Anthony Todd Thompson, in a review of the 
same in the Gardeners' Magazine, says that it is a 
question whether the sap of plants drawing their 
nourishment from vegetable matter is in any higher 
state of elaboration than those feeding upon de- 
cayed manures. But he finds the advantage of the 
use of the green manure, as in Mr. Knight's experi- 
ments, to result from the difl'erence in the degree 
of heat. Green vegetable matter would, of course, 
ferment rapidly, and heat would be the consequence; 
so that the ground about such manures would be 
afl"ected by it, the germination of seeds and the 
growth of plants would be hastened and increp^"-^ 



188 PLOUGPIING IN GREEN CROPS. 

Prof. Sprengel, of Germany, published in the year 
1842 a number of valuable papers in the Garden- 
ers' Chronicle upon green manuring, from which 
we glean the following : 

"It is the operation of growing certain plants 
merely for the purpose of ploughing them in as soon 
as they have reached a certain maturity (namely, 
are in blossom), which may be done either on the 
spot or by conveying them to another field. This 
is no modern discovery, for it was used even by the 
Romans, especially with the lupine. Although 
this sort of manuring has been extolled by some 
authors beyond all measure, it cannot be doubted 
that it is a very advantageous operation, especially 
on light land with a pervious subsoil. Its advan- 
tages are that most of the plants grown for green 
manuring obtain from the subsoil, by means of 
their deep roots, those substances which are required 
as food by shallow-rooted plants, and which are 
thus brought back to the surface whence they were 
previously removed by rain ; at the same time they 
convey substances to the surface which it never 
before possessed. These are the chief advantages 
derived from ploughing in green crops, which, how- 
ever, have not been hitherto properly appreciated. 
Among the more useful substances thus brought 
up from the subsoil are potash, soda, chlorine, sul- 
phuric and phosphoric acids, magnesia, and lime. 
Ti-o green crop, when ploughed in, enriches the 



ECONOMY OF GREEN MANURE. 189 

land with carbon, which was absorbed from the 
atmosphere by the leaves of plants. That it sup- 
plies the soil with nitrogen is very important to 
corn plants, for they possess the powder of attracting 
nitrogen (which is one of their chief sources of 
nutrition) from the air only in a very slight degree. 
Green crops, moreover, keep dry soils cool and 
moist, because the humus which is engendered by 
their decomposition not only absorbs much moisture, 
but retains it for a long time. Their strong herbage 
and woody roots act mechanically on heavy land by 
loosening it. After manuring with a green crop, 
corn is never laid, although it grows as luxuriantly 
as after a dressing of dung. The reason is, that 
while the latter supplies the ground suddenly with 
a great amount of nitrogen, green manure affords 
it much more gradually, in consequence of the 
slowness of its decomposition, acting most power- 
fully when the plant requires most nourishment. 
Its effects will not last, however, more than two 
years, as the mass of herbage ploughed in is often 
not more than a third of the weight of the dung. 

" This method of enriching land is very econom- 
ical, not requiring more than one ploughing and 
harrowing, and the seed is generally very cheap. 
When fields are at a distance, it saves much carriage ; 
and it prevents the soil from losing its humus by 
evaporation ; because, as soon as the corn is gath- 
ered in, the field is ploughed and the crop for green 



190 GREEN MANURE. 

manure sown. These advantages have led to the 
assertion that plentiful crops may be obtained with- 
out any other kind of manure, if, between every 
two corn crops, green manure is employed. It has 
been forgotten, however, that this itself will ex- 
haust the subsoil in the long run. If the subsoil 
be very rich in fertilizing substances, the surface- 
soil may be kept in full vigor for many years by 
green manures, without the assistance of dung ; 
nevertheless, under any circumstances, it will be 
useful to manure occasionally, employing such sub- 
stances as gypsum, common salt, bone-dust, wood 
ashes, etc., which will be useful both to the crop 
for manure, and to that which is to follow it. 

" He who wishes to obtain all possible advantage 
from green manure must observe — first : those 
plants only must be used whose seed is very cheap. 
Second : those must be taken which are sure to 
succeed and grow very fast, in order that in the 
shortest time the greatest amount of herbage may 
be produced. Third : they must not contain sub- 
stances which would be injurious to the succeeding 
crops. Fourth : they should be deep-rooted plants, 
for such will absorb the nourishing substances hid- 
den in the earth, and convey them to the surface 
for the use of the shallow-rooted crops. We are 
not required, however, to confine ourselves- to an- 
nual plants ; on the contrary, it is much better (as 
will be seen hereafter) if perennial plants are sown, 



GREEN MANURE. 191 

because in that case annual cultivation, and all the 
seed after the first, will be saved. Such plants 
cannot, as a matter of course, be ploughed in on 
the spot ; but they must be cut down and carted on 
the field most in need of manure. For this purpose 
plants may be used that have not yet been much 
thought of Fifth: those plants more especially 
are to be used for green manure which have many 
broad leaves, because they most absorb aeriform 
substances (carbonic acid, hydrogen, and nitrogen). 
Spurry is an exception to this rule. Sixth : those 
plants must be selected which absorb from the sub- 
soil those mineral substances in which the surface 
is deficient, and which are required for the nour- 
ishment of the future crop of corn ; but whether 
those substances on which the success of deep- 
rooted plants depend are to be found in the subsoil, 
can only be decided by a chemical analysis. Seventh: 
in order that the plants sown may yield the great- 
est amount of herbage, seed must be used abun- 
dantly. It may, therefore, be useful to sow difi'erent 
sorts together, so that if one does not succeed the 
other may. In all cases it is essential that the field 
should be clear of grass and other weeds ; because, 
as the land cannot be ploughed more than once, 
weeds may increase subsequently to such an extent 
that the failure of the corn crop may be appre- 
hended. Deep-rooted weeds are best destroyed by 
the closeness and shade of the green crop, and this 



192 GREEN MANURE. 

is an additional reason for sowing a great deal of 
seed. Eighth : the land which is to be manured 
must itself be rich enough on its surface to sustain 
the green manure on its first development. All 
endeavors, by ploughing in green plants, to fertilize 
a soil which is deficient in all vegetable nourish- 
ment, will be vain. If land is very poor, such plants 
must be selected as need very little nourishment, 
like spurry. They should be ploughed in, and re- 
sown repeatedly, till the land is capable of bearing 
something better. This, of course, takes several 
seasons. In most cases, nature is the best nurse, 
and a field which is too poor to repay the outlay 
for cultivation, if left fallow, or used for pasturage, 
will by degrees produce a scanty vegetation. Grasses 
or clover may be sown, and then, if the field has 
been fed from three to fixe years, and is again 
ploughed, the soil will have received some nourish- 
ment from the roots of the grass, and will produce 
a tolerable crop. Ninth : all plants used for green 
manure should be ploughed in at the very moment 
when they are in blossom ; if it is done before this 
time, the herbage will not have attained its greatest 
growth ; if later, the humus from the decaying leaves 
will needlessly evaporate, and nitrogen be exhaled 
from the flowers." 

Thus it is evident that green manure gives to the 
soil those organic substances which it has absorbed 
from the atmosphere, and the inorganic, derived 



THE TURNIP AS A MANURE. 193 

from the subsoil. If their decomposition took place 
in the open air, many of the most valuable elements 
of the former would be lost ; but by ploughing them 
in, they are absorbed by the soil as they are disen- 
gaged. The consumption of turnips on the land 
where they were grown, by feeding them to sheep, 
is well known to promote fertility; still it is an 
open question whether, if ploughed in, they would 
not have a more beneficial effect upon the soil. 
They gain nothing by passing through the sheep, 
but rather lose ; for the animal requires their nour- 
ishment to sustain him. Whether this would be 
as profitable as to feed them to sheep, when the 
return from the mutton and wool is considered, we 
do not pretend to say, but only to call the attention 
of the cultivator, who has in his mind merely the 
fertilization of his land, to the principle involved. 

The soil of the forest shows the efi'ect of natural 
green manuring. It is continually dressed by the 
fall of the foliage ; and, notwithstanding the growth 
of the tree, the soil gains by the crop, because the 
leaves contain organic substances derived from the 
atmosphere, which decompose and escape slowly on 
account of the shade of the forest. The crops prin- 
cipally used for artificial manuring are the vetch, 
buckwheat, rye, turnips, red clover, white lupines. 
These are adapted to various soils in their several 
conditions. 

The vetch and white lupine are adapted to all 
17 



194 PLANTS FOR GREEN MANURING. 

soils except those which contain lime. The frost 
should be permitted to touch them before they are 
ploughed in. 

Buckivheat is excellent upon sandy, poor land, if 
used while about knee high. 

Rije is suited to sandy land, but is inferior to 
buckwheat. 

Turnips are excellent on almost all soils. 

Red clover is a very valuable crop for heavy land, 
as its roots penetrate deeply, and thoroughly loosen 
the earth. 

Spurry is valuable for sandy soils. It grows very 
fast, and two or three crops can often be secured in 
a season. 

Some substances are applied as green manure 
which are not grown upon the soil; such as straw, 
muck, tan, sawdust, etc. These should be partially 
decomposed before application ; some of them con- 
taining injurious qualities, in the crude state, as 
well as those that are beneficial. In the use of 
litter for the barn, those materials should be used 
which will produce the best result upon the land to 
which they are to be applied. Thus the cultivator, 
in the manufacture of his barn-yard manure, can 
combine those substances most needful to his soil, 
and to the life of the plant which he desires to 
cultivate. 

The fruit-grower should not lose sight of the 
value of liquid manure, for it is particularly rich in 



LIQUID MANURE. 195 

organic substances. It is very valuable upon sandy 
soils, where its direct application is not attended 
with those injurious results which sometimes follow 
it upon heavy land. It stimulates the plant to pro- 
duce an abundance of roots, as well as branches, 
and thus binds the soil together, making it more 
fertile for the succeeding crop. The urine of all 
animals is too valuable to be thrown away, as is 
the foolish practice of many farmers. It is partic- 
ularly important to those who rely for their manure 
upon animals which work hard, as with such the 
liquid manure increases while the solid excrement 
decreases in value. Urine is very rich in nitrogen, 
which is supposed to be particularly valuable to 
grain crops, and would be necessary to a certain 
extent with orchards to sustain the draft which the 
seeds of the fruit make upon it. The application of 
liquid manure has been found to bake the earth, 
and prevent the free action of the air among its 
particles. This is easily overcome, while its good 
qualities are still retained, by so placing loam or 
some other porous material as to absorb it as it 
runs to the cellar from the animal. 

The loss of the liquid manure of our animals is 
a most deplorable evil in the husbandry of our 
country, as it contains much more of those organic 
substances which are so valuable to vegetation 
than does the solid excrement. There are at least 
twenty millions of horses, cattle, sheep, and hogs 



196 VALUE OF LIQUID MANURE. 

in the United States ; add to this thirty millions of 
human beings, and, at a low estimate, the value of 
their liquid manure is worth one hundred millions 
of dollars annually. It has been said that that of 
Great Britain would, if saved, pay her whole in- 
ternal tax. What an addition would this be to the 
farming capital of our country ! 

The waste of valuable manurial substances in this 
country is enormous ; but, as it increases in popula- 
tion, more regard will probably be paid to it. The 
soil of China is forced to produce bread for such a 
teeming multitude, that no fertilizer is allowed to 
waste which can enrich the land. The Madras 
Almanac for 1841 says : " Most of the individuals 
met in the paths of the fields are provided with a 
basket and rake ; and every evening the cottager 
brings home a certain quantity to add to the dung- 
heap, which is a most important appendage to every 
dwelling. Having but few sheep and cattle, they 
are obliged to make the most of the stercoraceous 
stock of men and swine. This is carefully collected, 
and actually sold at so much per pound; while 
whole strings of scavengers may be seen cheerily 
posting into the country every successive morning 
with their envied acquisitions, little heeding the 
olfactory nerves of the less interested passengers. 
Every other substance likely to answer the end is 
anxiously collected, and carefully disposed, so as to 
provide for future exigencies. Decayed animal and 



APPLICATION OF MANURES. 197 

vegetable matter, the sweepings of streets, the mud 
of canals, burnt bones, lime, and, what is not a little 
singular, the short stumpy hair shaven from millions 
of heads, every few days is industriously gathered, 
and sold for manure throughout the empire." 

There are undoubtedly some lands, in the western 
portion of our country, where it would be injurious 
to manure for an orchard, because it would cause 
so free a growth as to induce blight ; -^ but these are 
exceptional cases, for the majority of the soils of 
the world require the addition of manure; and 
twenty failures are made in this country, from want 
of sufficient fertility, to one where it too much 
abounds. 

IV. APPLICATION OF MANURES. 

The best time for ajDplying manure is the fall, 
that its fertility may be washed into the soil by the 
rains and thaws of winter. If it is well decomposed, 
it can be applied just before ploughing. The con- 
dition desirable for manure, when applied, depends 
upon the mode of its application. Fresh manure 
should be placed on the surface, because its juices 
are absorbed by the soil before fermentation takes 
place ; and this occurring in the soil, its volatile 
qualities are retained. But, for incorporation with 
the soil, decomposed manure is preferable, because 
it has already undergone that decomposition in 

1 See Chapter on Diseases. 

17* 



198 APPLICATION DURING AUTUMN. 

which the oxygen of the air was necessary, and 
of which it would have been partially or wholly 
deprived in the soil : fresh manure might have re- 
mained unfermented, and therefore useless under 
these circumstances. 

M. Boussingault has an interesting paper on this 
point. He says : "If opinions are divided on the 
question whether manure should be used before or 
after fermentation, they are not less so as regards 
the manner of spreading it, and the proper season 
of carrying it into the field. Those who are con- 
vinced that the dung should be used as it comes 
from the stall, are quite indifferent as to the time 
of carting it; the most convenient time may be 
chosen, which is no small advantage, and this is 
our practice at Bechelbronn, where it is carried out 
as soon as possible. The fields to be fertilized for 
spring cultivation are manured in the winter, when 
the frost permits. The dung, at first laid in little 
heaps at regular distances, is afterwards spread as 
equally as possible, generally on the snow, — a 
practice in which we have never found any incon- 
venience. The method adopted by certain culti- 
vators of keeping dung in great masses, with the 
view of spreading it when the tillage takes place, 
is certainly wrong ; the spots in which the heaps 
are laid are too highly manured, and the plan is 
adapted for fresh dung only. The custom of leav- 
ing it for months, perhaps, spread on the land, and 



SURFACE APPLICATION. 199 

exposed to every variation of the season, has been 
criticized. It is said to lose its volatile parts ; that 
rain washes out and carries away those which are 
soluble ; and, induced by these fears, many do not 
spread the dung till the very moment when the 
land is ready for the plough. This difference of 
opinion in parties personally interested in making 
the most of their manure, ought not to be passed 
over lightly. In agricultural matters it is danger- 
ous to generalize too much. The climate ought to 
be taken into consideration. In Alsatia, where the 
rain during the whole year amounts to twenty-seven 
inches, during December, January, and February, 
the quantity amounts only to four inches and thirty- 
six hundredths. The quality of the manure might, 
perhaps, be injured when the proportion in winter 
is greater. The quality of the manure itself must 
also be taken into consideration, as a heap which 
contains a large portion of carbonate of ammonia, 
and emits a very decided odor of volatile alkali, 
would certainly be deteriorated by prolonged expos- 
ure to the air ; but this loss is scarcely perceptible 
where the manure contains but a small quantity of 
ammoniacal salts, as is the case with that which 
has been treated with gypsum. When the rains are 
not too heavy, the soluble part of the manure which 
is spread over the land penetrates it, and is retained 
in the upper stratum, exactly as when, instead of 
incorporating the manure with the soil, it is spread 



200 TOP-DRESSING. 

over crops in full vegetation, or before the germina- 
tion of the seed. This practice of top-dressing is 
often profitable, and is proof enough of the little 
inconvenience there is in exposing the dung to the 
changes of weather. It arose in the first instance, 
perhaps, from necessity ; but it has been found so 
useful that it has been much adopted. We have 
applied it with decided advantage to crops after 
hoemg — time being thus gained for the production 
of manure. In the district of Marck, it is daily 
gaining ground ; the dung is spread when the plant 
has already appeared, and experience shows that 
the passage of the carts over the land is not sensi- 
bly injurious. It would be preferable, however, to 
choose a time when the surface is hard from frost. 
This method, according to Schwartz, is very useful 
in Switzerland for hemp, and indeed for almost 
every kind of crop. I regard it myself as a matter 
of convenience ; but Shaer assures us — and his 
authority is of great weight — that he has too often 
seen its good eff'ects on leguminous crops not to be 
convinced of the excellence of this method on loose 
land in which grass has been sown late." 

Thus green manure should be applied on the 
surface in the fall or winter. 



CHAPTER VII. 

SELECTION OF VARIETIES. 



EVILS OF INDISCRIJIINATE SELECTION — FRUITS SUITABLE FOR THE 
AMATEUR, FOR FAMILY USE, FOR THE MARKET — CATALOGUE OP THE 
DIFFERENT VARIETIES ADAPTED TO THE DIFFERENT SECTIONS OP 
THE COUNTRY — THE BEST SIX, TWELVE, TWENTY, OR ONE HUNDRED 
SORTS, FOR EACH STATE. 



W 



§ I. THEIR ADAPTATION TO DIFFERENT LOCALITIES. 

E have already considered the influence of the 



atmosphere, the properties of the soil, and 
the various methods of improving it. The next 
subject to occupy our attention is the selection 
of varieties of fruit adapted to different condi- 
tions. 

Much of the failure in the groAvth of fruit is to 
be attributed to an indiscriminate selection, in the 
belief that one variety is as well suited to a certain 
position as another. Both science and practice 
teach us that it is folly to remove a tropical plant 
to the polar regions, with any expectation of suc- 
cess ; the climate is not adapted to it, and it soon 
perishes ; vice versa, plants from cold regions be- 
come stunted and die in the tropics. To be sure, 
art sometimes overcomes these difficulties, and in- 



202 ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES. 

duces plants to flourish for a time ; but, if left to 
nature, they soon become extinct, or produce an 
offspring suited to their present surroundings. 

This law of adaptation is one which relates not 
only to the orders, genera, and species of the vege- 
table kingdom, but also to its varieties ; and, as we 
descend the scale, this distinction becomes more 
nice. For instance, some varieties of the pear lux- 
uriate upon a rich alluvial soil, while others become 
diseased and worthless. 

But, as it would be impossible to form an iso- 
thermal map of any country in which the influence 
upon the temperature of every little elevation of 
the surface should be noted, so is it to form one 
exhibiting the proper varieties of fruit to be grown 
in every conceivable position. There is no universal 
law within our knowledge for the government of 
the cultivator in this respect, and all the data from 
which we have to judge are the results of expe- 
rience. 

We aA^ail ourselves of the excellent catalogue of 
the American Pomological Society, to which we 
have been enabled to add one or two Southern States 
from documents in our possession. 

As the United States possess such a diversity of 
climate, many of the most valuable fruits of one 
section will not arrive at maturity in another. This 
fact enhances the value of such a table as we insert, 
prepared by the able chairman of the General Fruit 



SORTS FOR FAMILY USE. 203 

Committee of that society ; but the cultivator must 
not lose sight of the more particular influences of 
soil and exposure. 

The use to which the fruit is to be applied should 
influence the selection. If the amateur desires a 
collection of some one species to combine all the 
styles of growth, of beauty, or oddity of form and 
delicacy of flavor, the bearing properties will be a 
minor consideration. With such a man, a careful 
selection is not of importance ; for the discovery of 
adaptation is a part of the study in which he 
delights. 

For family use those varieties should be chosen 
which are of acknowledged worth, both for the table 
and the kitchen, and such as will aflbrd a constant 
succession ; while beauty is unimportant compared 
with productiveness. 

For the market we should have but few varieties. 
Many of our fruit-growers have erred in this re- 
spect ; they have multiplied their sorts, which gave 
them only a few trees, and so little fruit of each 
kind that it was diflicult to market it. The most 
successful cultivators for the market have been 
those whose orchards contained but few varieties, 
and their crop of each was sufliciently large to in- 
duce them to make a business of selling it. The 
variety should also be of vigorous habit, because it 
is designed to tax its bearing properties as much as 
is consistent with safety. If, by accident, or the 



204: PROPERTIES OF MARKET FRUITS. 

too sanguine disposition of the cultivator, some 
trees be permitted to bear a crop which exhausts 
their strength, such will generally recover them- 
selves easily, while others become diseased and die. 
The variety should be prolific. This is such a self- 
evident condition of profitable culture, that it is 
needless to enlarge upon it. The fruit should be 
large and heautlful^ even at the expense of quality. 
The importance of this fact is acknowledged by all 
cultivators for the market. The great popularity 
of the Bartlett Pear is owing, in a measure, to its 
size and beauty. The Windsor, or Summer Bell, is 
very large and handsome, but of poor quality ; yet 
it sells in our market at a better price than many 
really superior varieties. The size of the fruit is of 
more importance to the producer than he may at 
first imagine, not only on account of his imme- 
diate profit realized from the sale, but also by reason 
of the exhaustion of his trees. On a superficial in- 
vestigation, one might decide that the production of 
a larger fruit weakened the tree more than a small 
one. But that which expends the strength of an- 
imals and plants is the formation of the ofi'spring. 
This is not the fruit, but the seeds contained in it ; 
the flesh which surrounds them no more exhausts 
the tree in its growth than do the leaves ; for until 
the ripening process commences they perform much 
the same functions. Those varieties, like the Vicar 
of Winkfield, whose fruit has hardly any or no 



EXHAUSTION BY THE SEEDS. 205 

seeds, can bear an almost unlimited crop without 
injury. Thus it will be evident that a little Seckel 
pear may exhaust the tree even more than a Bart- 
lett. The Belle Lucrative, or Fondante d'Automne, 
is one of the most delicious of pears, as well as a 
great and regular bearer ; and yet it will not bring 
more than two-thirds the price of greatly inferior 
sorts, on account of its green color. 

A list of varieties proved to be the best for orch- 
ards of different sizes, in various sections of the 
country, is added below. Some of the states are 
necessarily omitted. 

18 



206 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE L. 



The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity ; 3d, the 
in which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite a variety indicates 
two stars (**) distinguish those most highly recommended. The Italics in the 

The Abbreviations are as follows: Seasons, S. summer; A. autumn; W. winter; E. 
as medium. Use, K. designates varieties recommended only for kitchen purposes; 
regarded as dessert or table sorts. M. designates the most valuable varieties for 



No. 


NAME. 


< 


00 


1 

B 


5 


3 

o 

o 
o 


i 

is 

CS 


S 

S 

p 

o 


ci 
o 


.a 
o 

s 

.2 


3 
O 

.5 


o 




1 
2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
11 

12 
13 
14 
15 
IG 
17 
18 
19 

20 

1 21 

i 

24 

25 
26 

27 
28 
29 


Alles, 


W. 
E.A. 

S. 

E. S. 
A. 
A. 

A. 
W. 

E.W. 

A. 
E.W. 

W. 

S. 

w. 
w. 

s. 

E.W. 
W. 

s. 

w. 
w. 
w. 
w. 
w. 

A. 

E. S. 


K. 
K. 

K. M. 

"k." 
"m." 

"mV" 

M. 


* 

* 




* 
** 

.* 


* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 


* 
* 


! 




Alexander, 

Emperor Alexander. 
American Summer Pearmain, 

American Summer. 

Early Summer Pearmain. 

Astrachan Red, 

Aslimore, 


* 
* 

** 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

** 
* 

* 
* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 




Autumn Bou2:h, 

Late Bough. 

Sweet BeUflower. 

Autumnal Swaar, 

Baldwin,. 

Steele's Red Winter. 
Bailey Sweet, 

Edgerhfs Sweet. 

Patterson's Siveet. 

Baltimore Pippin, 

Belmont,. 

Gate. Waxen. 
Bellefleur Yellow, 




Benoni, 

Beauty of Kent, 




K. 


* 


-- 


-- 


-- 




Black Oxford, 




Black's Annette, 

Blooming Orange, 

Bl ue Pearmai n , 

Bohannan, 

Buchannan. 

Bowling's SAveet, 

Bourassa 




Broadwell, 

Brooke's Pippin, 

Bullock's Pippin, . 












* 




American Golden Russett. 

Sheep's JSfose. 

Buckingham, 

Carolina Red June, 

Red June. 
Cannon Pearmain,. . 




L.W. 
W. 
A. 


M. 

"mV" 




-- 




-- 




Carter of Virginia, ... 




Cooper, 

Beauty Red. 
Lady Washington. 





TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



207 



APPLES. 



particular Use for which the variety is best adapted ; and the remainder the Districts 
that such a variety succeeds well in the district named at the head of the column; 
column of Names donote synonymes. 

early; L. late. Those not designated as early or late of their season may be regarded 
C. those specially adapted for making cider. Those not marked K. or C. may be 
the market. 





o 


3 

eg 

1 


03 

o 


s 

1 




6 


es 
1 

1 


1 


Si >. 

es 


■p. 
1 


5 


= 

CS 




1 


i 


1 

1 


1 

5 


I 


o 
"A 

6 

o 


"5 
1 


o 

.2 

o 


1 

r 


1 

c 

s 


1 

1 


c 
.S 

2 

* 
** 

* 
* 

* 
* 




> 


§ 
1 


No. 




* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 
* 


* 
* 
** 


" 


* 
* 

* 


-- 


" 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


** 
* 

** 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
** 

* 
* 

* 




-- 


* 

** 
* 

** 
* 

* 

* 
* 

• 


* 

** 
* 

** 
* 

* 
** 

* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

** 

* 


* 
* 

** 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 

** 
* 

* 

* 
** 


* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
** 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 




1 
2 

3 

4 
5 
6 

7 
8 

9 

10 
11 

12 
13 
14 
1.1 
16 
17 
18 
19 

20 
20 
20 
20 
20 

25 

26 

27 
28 
29 



208 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



40 



54 



56 



Cooper's Market, 

Cooper's Redling. 

Cogswell, 

Cole's Quince, 

Cornell's Fancy, 

Cornell's Favorite. 

Cullasaga, 

Danvers Winter Sweet, 

Dominie, 

Wells. 
Drap d'Or, 

Early Summer Pippin. 

Dutch Mignonne, 

Duchess olr Oldenburg, 

Borovitski. 

Carlowinslci. 
Dyer, or Pomme Royal, 

Pomme Water. 

Tompkins. 

Spice Apple. 

Beard Burden. 
Early Harvest, 

Yellow Harvest. 

Early Pennock, 

Early Redstreak, 

Early Joe, 

Early Strawbeny , . . 

American Red Juneating. 
Early Red Margaret, 

Bed Juneating. 

Striped Juneating. 
English Russet, 

Poughkeepsie Russet. 

Ewalt, 

Excel, 

Fallawater, 

Fornioalder. 

Tulpehocken. 
Fall Pippin, 

Holland Pippin (erroneous). 
Fall Wine, 

Sharp's Spice, etc. 
Fall Queen of Kentucky, 

Winter Queen. 

Ladies' Favorite of Tennesse. 

Fall Jannetting, 

Fall Orange, 

Holden Pippin. 
Fameuse, 

Pomme de Neige. 

Snoio Apple. 

Fenner Sweet, 

Fenley, 



L.W. 

L.A. 
A. 
A. 

L.W. 
W. 
W. 

E.A. 



W. 
E.A. 



A. 



E. S. 

S. 

S. 
S. 

s. 

E.S. 



L.W, 

W. 
W. 
W. 



L.A. 

A. 

L.A. 



L.A. 
A. 

E.W. 



W. 

S. 



K.M, 



M. 



M. 



M. 



K.M. 



M. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



209 





t 

o 


i 


o 


1 


1 

C3 


2 

'a 


o 

i 


o 

a 
1 


•SO! 

1° 


'E. 
1 


c 






1 

g 


1 


1 

;- 
O 

o 


1 , 


1 

o" 
O 


1 

s 
5 


1 

.sis 


1 

c 

0) 

c 

c 


^1 

: <v 


o 


C3 

B 

> 


o 


No. 




* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

* 


-- 


* 
* 






* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

** 
* 


* 


* 
** 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 






* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

** 

** 

* 

** 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

** 
* 

.. 
"" 


'" 

** 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

"" 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
** 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
** 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

** 

* 


* 

** 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

** 


* 


- 


30 

31 

32 
33 

34 
35 

36 

37 

38 
39 

40 

41 

42 
43 

44 
45 

46 

47 

48 
49 
50 

51 
52 
53 

54 
55 

56 

57 
58 



18^ 



210 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



^jo 



Fulton, -- 

Garilcn Royal, 

Gilpin,. 

Cart House. 

Romanite of the West. 

Little Romanite. 

Golden Russet of W. N. Y., 

Golden Russet of Mass., 

Golden Swectinjj;,.-. 

Oraiif/e Sweeting. 

Trenton Early of some Western 
collections. 

Gravenstein, 

Green Cheese, 

Green Sweet,. 

Honey Greening. 

Ilawthornden,-.. 

Hartford S\veetin<:?, 

Herefordshire Pearmain, 

Royal Pearmain. 

Hewes' Virginia Crab. 

Hi^ih-top Sweet, 

Sweet June. 

Summer Sweet. 
Horse Apple, 

Summer Horse. 

Hockini^, 

Holland Pippin, 

Summer Pippin. 

Pie Apple. 

Holladay 's Secdlin.ir, 

Holden Pippin (see Fall Orange),.. 

Hubbardston Nonsuch, 

Hurll)ut, 

Jersey Sweeting, 

Jonathan, 

King Philip. 

Jeffries, 

Jewctt's Fine Red, 

Nodliead. 

Knowles's Early, 

Kane,... .'. 

Cain. 

Keswick Codlin, 

King of Tompkins County, 

Large Yellow Bough, 

Sioeet Dough. 

Sweet Harvest, etc. 
Lady Apple,. 

Pomme d'Api. 

Ladies Sweeting, 

Late StraAvl)crry , 

Autumn Strawberry. 



W. 
A. 
W. 



L.W. 

VV. 

E.A. 



E.A. 

L.W. 

W. 

E.A. 
W. 
W. 

A. 

S. 



S. 
L. S. 



W. 

A. 
E.W. 
E.W. 
E.A. 

W. 



E.A. 
E.W. 

S. ■ 
A. 

S. 
E.W. 

S. 



w. 
w. 

A. 



M. 

M. 

K.M. 



K. 
K. 



C. 
K. 



M. 



K. 

M. 

K. M. 



K. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



211 





1 

•i 


1 

CO 

o 


C3 

is 

o 




i 

s 






o 


IS 




c 




1 

u 


43 

e 


o 


1^: 

o 


1 

o 


S 


c 

5 


'a 
5 


o 

1 


1 




1 

c 


c 
a 

1 

pi 


o 
E 

Z 




§ 


No. 




* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 




* 
* 


-- 


* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

** 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 


** 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

** 

* 

** 

* 

* 

V. 

* 

* 

* 


-- 


-- 


* 

* 

** 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


** 
** 

** 

* 
* 

* 

* 
** 
** 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 


* 


__ 
* 

* 


* 
** 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
** 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
** 

"■ 

** 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

** 

* 


* 
* 

* 


-- 


59 
CO 
61 

62 
63 
64 

65 
66 
67 

68 
69 
70 

71 
72 

73 

74 
75 

76 
77 
78 
79 
80 
81 

82 
&3 

84 
85 

86 
87 
88 

89 

90 
91 



212 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 
10(3 
107 

108 



109 

110 

111 
112 

113 
114 



115 
110 
117 
118 
119 
120 
121 

122 



Limber Twig, .-. 

James River. 
Lyman's Pumpkin Sweet, 

Pound Sweet. 
Lowell, - 

Orange. 

Tallow Apple. 

Greasy Pippin. 

Queen Anne. 

Michigan Golden Pippin. 
Lyscom, 

Osgood's Favorite. 

Maiden's Blush, 

Mackinlay, 

Manomet, 

Melon, 

Minlcler, 

Minister, 

Milam, 

Michael Henry Pippin, 

Monmouth Pippin, 

Bed Cheek Pippin. 

Mother, 

Munson Sweet, 

Myers' Nonpareil, 

Ohio Nonpareil. 
New York Pippin, 

Kentucky Streak. 

Carolina Red-Streak. 

Red Pippin. Victoria Red. 

Carolina Red, and by some 

Ben Davis. 
Newtown Pippin, 

Green Newtown Pippin. 

Newtown Pippin, Yellow,. 

Northern Spy, 

Northern Sweet, 

Northern Golden Sweet. 

Oglesby, 

Ortley,. , 

White Bellflower. 

White Detroit. 

Woolman's Long. 

Paradise Winter Sweet, 

Paraf^on , 

Peck's Pleasant, 

Pennsylvania Red Streak, 

Porter, 

Pomme Grise, 

Primate, 

Rough and Ready. 
Projxress, 

Esquire Miller's Best. 



L.W. 

L.A. 

A. 



A. 

W. 

A. 
E.W. 

W. 

W. 

W. 
L.W. 
L. W. 

E.W. 
A. 
A. 

L.W. 



L.W. 

L.W. 

L.W. 

A. 

W. 
W. 



W. 

A. 

W. 

W. 

A. 
L.W. 
L. S. 



K.M. 



M. 



M. 



M. 



W. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



213 















J^ X 














.= 


t; cs 


s 
o 












O 




02 




>. 






5 




-.2 






•^ 


■ 






n 


« bC' 


•5 


is 


1 


1 








^ 




'^ 




g 


S 


S 


^ 





cj 




*i 










oc 






CS 




~ 




w 










= 


s 


CS 


,1^ 




C8 


.ijj 


n 


o 


s 




>H 




& 


XJ 


& 




o 


o 


« 


- 


^ 


>^ 


;2; 



o 



S C3 0) .«>. 



.So 



No. 



95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 
106 
107 

108 



109 

110 
111 
112 

11.3 
114 



115 
116 
117 
118 
119 
120 
121 

122 



214 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



w,;j 



:°. 



Q^O 



123 
124 



12.3 



126 



127 



128 
129 



130 
131 



132 
133 



134 
ISf) 
13G 
137 
138 



139 

140 
141 
14-2 
143 
144 
145 
140 



147 



148 



Piyor's Red, 

Ram bo, 

Romanite, Seek-no-further, or 
Bread-and- Cheese Apjile oj 
New Jersey. 
Rambour Franc, 

Summer Rambo. 

Rambour d'Ete. 
Ramsdell's Sweet, 

RamsdelVs Red Pumpkin Sweet, 

Red PumioJcin Sweet. 

English Sweet. 
Rawles's Janet, 

Neoer-fail. 

Jannetting. 

Rochremain. 

Rochrimmon. 

Republican Pippin, 

Red Canada, 

Old J^onsuch of Massachusetts. 

Richfield Nonsuch. 

Steele's Red Winter, of some 
collections in 3Iichigan. 

Red Ingestrie, 

Red Sweet,. 

Red Winter Sweet. 

Red Cathead, 

Reinette Canada, 

Canada Reinette {the only one 
in use here). 

Rhode IsUtnd Greening, 

Ril)ston Pippin, 

Ridge Pippin, 

Roman Stem, 

Roxbury Russet, 

Boston R^isset. 

Putnam Russet of some West- 
ern collections. 
Rome Beauty, 

Gillett's Seedling. 

Robey's Seedling, 

Robertson's White, 

Saint Lawrence, 

Shcppard's Sweet, 

Sine qua non, 

Smith's Cider, 

Smoke-house, 

Mill Creek Vandevere. 

English Vandevere. 
Sops of Wine, 

Pie Apple. 

Washington. 
Spice Sweet, 



W. 
W. 



w. 



L.W. 



A. 
W. 



A. 
W. 



W. 
W. 



W. 
E. W. 
L W. 

W. 
L.W. 



W. 

W. 

E.AY. 

A. 

A. 

S. 

w. 

E.W. 



M. 



K. 



M. 



I I 



M. 



M. 



K. M. 
M. 



K. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



215 





2 

1 
•i 


1 

o 


C3 

is 

o 


o 

Z) 


1 




1 


m 


1 


o 




o 

1 

3 


1 

c 

c: 




O 


i 

o 
"A 


z 

4) 


c 


s 

6 

5 


i 

o 

3 


1 

z 


1 

a 

!= 
C 

2-( 


1 


s 
1 


3 
c 

o 


.2 

'5 


i 
1 


No. 




* 

* 

** 
* 

* 
* 

* 
** 


* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

** 
* 


-- 

__ 

:: 


- 

* 
* 


-- 




* 

** 

** 
** 

* 




** 
* 

** 

\\ 
** 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 
* 


-- 




* 

* 

** 

__ 
** 

* 


* 

* 

* 

** 

* 
* 


* 

:: 
** 

** 


** 

* 
** 

* 


* 
** 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

** 
* 
* 

** 
** 

i-- 


* 

* 
* 

* 
** 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

** 


* 
* 

* 


■ 
* 


* 

* 
* 


" 


123 
124 

125 
126 

127 

128 
129 

1.30 
131 

1.32 
133 

134 
13.5 
1.30 
137 
138 

139 

140 
141 
142 
143 
144 
145 
146 

147 

148 



21 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



149 

ino 

151 



152 
153 
154 

155 
156 
157 
158 

159 
160 
161 
162 



163 



164 
165 
166 
167 
168 



169 

170 

171 
172 
173 

174 
175 
176 
177 
178 



Spitzenburg Esopus, 

Summer Queen, 

Summer Rose, 

Woohnaii's Harvest. 

Lippincott. 

Summer Hagloe, 

Summer Sweet Paradise, 

Strawn's Seedling, 

Swain, 

Swaar, 

Tetofsky, 

Tinmouth, 

Teifjnmouth. 

Tolman's Sweeting, 

Towne, '. 

Townsend, 

Twenty Ounce Apple 

Eighteen Ounce Apple. 

Cayuf/a Streak. 
Vandervcre of New York, 

Newtown Spitzenburg. 

Ox Eye. 

Joe Berry. 

Wagener, 

Waugh's Crab, 

Watch Willow, 

Wei Iford's Yellow, 

Westlield ScL'k-no-further, 

Connecticut Seek-no-farther. 

Seek-no-farther. 
White Juncating, 

Juneating . 
White Pippin, 

Canada Pippin. 

White Winter Pcarmain, 

White Rambo, 

Wine Sap, 

Wine Sop. 

Willow Twig, 

Williams' Favorite, 

Wine Apple or Hays, . . . 

Yellow Ingcstrie, 

Yellow June, 

Klrkbridge White of Downing. 



W. 

s. 
s. 



L. S. 

s. 
w. 

A. 
W. 

s. 
w. 

w. 

A. 
E.A. 
E.W. 



W. 



w^ 
w. 

L.W. 

w. 
w. 



L.W. 



L.W. 

A. 
L.W. 

L. W. 

s. 
w. 

A. 

s. 



M. 



K.M. 



M. 



M. 



M. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



217 





"5 

s 

S 
•1 

= 


O 

o 


d 
is 
o 


o 

1 




6 


-2 
C 


o 

1 


5 >^ 

03 


'5. 

f 


1 


« 


« 

1 
^ 

^ 


2 1^ 


o 


I 

1-5 


it 

u 

6] 6 

3 o 


3 
O 

% 

o 


1 

r 
c 


1 

a 


1 


a 

0) 


1 

> 


'p. 


1 


No. 




* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
** 
** 

* 


* 
* 
** 


* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


-- 

* 
** 




" 


-- 


-■ 
-- 

;; 


* 
* 
* 

* 

** 

* 

* 
* 


* 


* 

* 

__ 

* 

* 
** 

** 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

** 




-- 


** 
* 

* 

!! 

* 

* 

* 
;■ 

-- 


* 

* 

** 
** 
** 

* 

* 

* 


* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

** 


* 
* 

:: 

** 
** 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
** 


* 
* 

v. 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

** 


* 

* 
* 
** 

** 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 




149 
150 
151 

152 
153 
154 
155 
156 
157 
158 

159 
160 
161 
162 

163 

164 
165 
166 
167 
168 

169 

170 

171 
172 
173 

174 
175 
176 
177 
178 



19 



218 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE M. 



The Columns indicate : 1st, the Name of Variety; 2cl, the Season of Maturity; 3d, the 
the Districts iu which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite a 
of the column; two stars (**) distinguish those most liighly recommended. The 

The Abbreviations are as follows: Seasons, S. summer; A. autumn; W. winter; E. 
Those not marked K. may be regarded as dessert or table sorts. M. designates 
are known to succeed well on the Quince stock, and are, consequently, specially 



No. 



NAME. 



Abbott, 

Adams, 

Alexandrina, 

Ananas d'Ele, 

Andrews, 

Bartlett or Williams' Bonchretien, 
Belle Lucrative, 

Fondante cl'Automne. 
Belle Epine Dumas, 

Epine Dumas. 

Due de Bordeaux, etc. 
Beurre Bcnoist, 

Auguste Benolt. Benoits. 

Beurre Bosc, 

Beurre Clair.i^eau, 

Beurre d' An jou, 

iVe i^lus Meuris of the French. 

Beurre' d'Amanlis, 

Beurre d' Arembera;, 

Beurre de Briii;nais, 

Des Nonnes. 

Beurre Diel, 

Beurre de Nantes, 

Nantais. 

Beurre Easter, 

Beurre Giffard, 

Beurre Golden of Bilboa, 

Beurre Goubault, 

Beurre Hardy, 

Beurre Kcnnes, 

Beurre Lani^elier, 

Beurre Osweiio, 

Beurre Supcrfin, 

Bczi de la Motte, 

Black Worcester, 

Bloodgood, 

Bonne d'Ezee, 

Brandywine, 

Buffum, 

Cabot,-. 

Capsheaf,... 

Catillac, 

Catinka, 

Chancellor, - 



A. 
E.A. 
E.A. 
E.A. 
E.A. 
E. A. 
E.A. 



E.W. 



A. 
L.A. 
L.A. 

E.A. 

E.W. 

A. 



A. 
A. 

W. 
E. S. 

A. 
E.A. 

A. 

A. 
L.A. 

A. 

A. 
L. A. 
L.W, 

S. 

A. 
E.A. 

A. 
E.A. 

A. 

W. 
L.A. 
L.A. 



M. 



.|Q. 



Q. 

Q. 

K. I Q. 



M. I Q. 



TO DIFI?ERENT DISTKICTS. 



219 



PEAKS. 

particular Use for which the variety is best adapted ; 4th, Stock ; and the remainder 
variety indicates that such a variety succeeds well in the district named at the head 
Italics in tlie column of Karnes donote synonymes, 

early ; L. late. Use, K. designates varieties recommended only for kitchen purposes; 
the most valuable varieties for the market. Stock, Q. designates those varieties which 
adapted for small gardens. 





"5 

1 
o 


3 

.5 


o 


c 

0- 


CI 




03 
C 


o 

c 

C5 
1 


it 
1^ 


i 


i 


I- 


C3 


s 

c; 


1 


1 

o 


1 

o 




r. 

c 
.2 

5 


1 
.2 


s 
o 

•Jl 

6 

O 


1 

c 

o 


1 

c 
c 




1 


S 


> 


o 


No. 




* 
* 

* 
* 
* 


* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


" 


* 
* 


'J 


;; 

-- 
-- 

V. 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 1 


"" 


** 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 


* 
* 
* 

* 
** 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 


"" 


* 

** 
** 

* 

* 
* 
** 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 


1 

;- 

** 
** 

* 

* 
* 
** 

• 

* 

** 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

*. 
** 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

-- 
-- 
* 

* 
* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


" 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

--I 
* 


"i 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 

8 

9 

10 
11 
12 

13 
14 
15 

16 
17 

18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 



220 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 













ci 
























.Q 




,• 








S 




^> 


» 


*: 




3 




^ 


W 


.S 


OJ 


w) 


















O C3 




^ 


'V 




= § 




o 


C3 


C3 


• 










H 


OS 1 C3 






03 


i-' 


s-> 


^ 


'^ 


^1 



50 



Chelmsford, 

Columbia, - 

Columbian Vlrgalieu. 

Conseilleur de la Com-, 

Cushina:,- 

D'Albret,..-. - --- 

Dearborn's Seedlin jr, - - 

Delices d'Hardenpont d'Angers, 

Dix, 

Doyenne Boussock, 

Doyenne d' Alen con, 

Doyenne cVHlver Nouveau. 

Doyenne du Cornice, 

Doyenne d'Ete, - 

Doyenne de Juillet. 

Summer Doyenne. 
Doyenne Gray, 

Doyenne Oris. 

Red Doyenne. 

Doyenne Robin, 

Doyenne White, 

St. Michael. Vlrgalieu. 

Butter Pear. 

Duchesse d'An<::ouleme, 

Duchesse de Berri d'Ete, 

Duchesse dc Brabant, 

Duchesse d'Orleans, 

Beurre St. Nicholas. 

Dunmore, 

Early Rousselet, 

Early Catherine. 

Rousselet Hatif. 

Elizabeth, Manning's, 

Eigne d'Alcncon, 

Flemish Beauty, . . - 

Frederick of Wirtemburg, 

Fulton, 

Gansel's Bei'gamot, 

Glout Morceau, 

Manners, 

Heathcot, 

Gore's Heathcot. 

Henkel,. 

Henry the Fourth,. 

Ananas. 

Poire Ananas, etc. 

Hovey, Dana's, 

Howell,... 

Hull, 

Jalousie de Fontenay, 

Jaminette, 

Jean de Witte, 

Johonnot, 



A. 
E.W. 



L.A. 

A. 

A. 

S. 
L.A. 

A. 
E.A. 
L.W. 



L.A. 
E. S. 



M. 



L.A. 



S. 
E.W. 

A. 

A. 

A. 

A. 
E.W. 

A. 

A. 

A. 
A. 



M. 



L.A. 

A. 

A. 

A. 

W. 
E.W. 

A. 



M. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



221 





1 
6 

o 


3 

o 

.22' 

o 

= 










-2 


■t:lo« 


.f 


c 




1 
1 


i 

S 


£ 

JO 

o 


1 

o 
?: 


1 

o 
& 




o 

o 


2 

O 


"5 

O 


1 

i 


1 

1 


1 


s 

1 


o 
E 

> 


.2 


c 

8 


No. 




* 
* 

* 

* 

-- 


* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

-- 


* 

* 
* 

* 




* 

* 


-- 


* 





* 


.. 


* 

* 


* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

** 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 


" 


-- 
V. 


* 

** 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

** 
* 

* 

** 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

V 

v 

* 
* 

* 


* 

-- 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 


* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 


__ 


38 
39 

40 
41 
42 
43 
44 
4.f) 
46 
47 

48 
49 

50 

51 
52 

53 
54 
55 
56 

57 
58 

59 
60 
61 
62 
63 
64 
65 
66 
67 

68 
69 

70 
71 
72 
73 
74 
75 
76 




* 
* 



* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

-- 


... 


* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 



VJ' 



222 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 


NAME. 


i 

02 


1 


t4 


1 

<A 

a 

03 


1 

-a 

C 
a 


i 

1 


CS 
CS 

1 


s 
o 

o 

1 


CS 

O 


JS 
t, 

o 
es" 

1 


J3 

1 

CO 

of 

s 

s 

'•3 

G 


o 

o 




77 
78 
79 
80 

81 
82 
83 

84 

85 
86 

87 
38 
89 
90 
91 

92 
93 
94 

95 
96 
97 
98 
99 
100 
101 
102 
103 
104 
105 
106 
107 
108 
109 
110 
111 

112 

113 
114 

115 
116 
117 
118 




L.W. 

S. 

A. 
E.A. 

A. 
E.W. 

S. 

A. 

E.A. 
E. S. 

A. 
E.W. 

A. 
E.A. 

A. 

L.A. 

L.A. 

A. 

S. 
L. S. 

A. 
E.W. 

S. 

A. 

S. 

S. 
E.A. 

A. 

A. 

A. 
L.S. 
E.A. 

S. 

S. 

A. 

L.W. 

L.A. 
E.W. 

E.A. 
E.A. 
E. W. 

S. 


M.' 


.... 


-- 


- 


* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


-- 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 




.Tnlipnnp - - 




TCino-apccino' . 




TCiv^lan^1 




KirtlancVs Secliel. 

Knight's R. I. Seedling, -- 

Lawrence, - - - 

Limon, 

Beurre Haggerston. 









-- 




Smith's Borclenave. 

Louise Bonne de Jersey, 

Madclaine, 

Citron cles Cannes. 

l\Tnvift TiOnisp, 


M. 

'm.' 


Q. 

Q. 
Q. 


-- 


-- 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 




McLaughlin, 

Merriam 




Moyamensing, 

Moore's - 




Bloore's Pound. 

Napoleon, 

Nouveau Poiteau, 

Onondaga, 

Swan's Orange. 
Osband's Summer 




Ott, 
















.... 


"qV 




- 




Pinneo or Boston, 

Pratt, 

Rousselet Stuttgart, 




Rostiezer, 

St. Ghislain, 

St. Michael Archange, 




M.' 
M. 


— 


-- 


-- 




Seckel, 

Sheldon, .-. 

Sterling,. 

Stevens' Genesee, 

Supreme de Quimper, 

Tyson, 




■q." 


-- 


- 




Urbanistc, 

Beurre Picquery. 
Uvedale's St. Germain, 

Pound. Winter Bell 

Angora. Bolivar, etc. 

Van Mons Leon te Clerc, 

Vicar of Winkfleld, 

Le Cure. 

Washington, 

Wilbur,: 

Winter Nelis, 


M. 
K. 

M.' 


Q. 


— 


-- 




Windsor, 

Summer Bell, etc. 


K. 


— 


-- 


-- 





TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



223 





1 

1 

1 


1 

m 

"o 


e3 
is 

o 




i 


CD 


ei 


X. 
o 

.1 


If 

II 


i 
1 


c 

5 




3 

1 


i 


1 


o 


o 


i 




6 


3 

O 

.2 


1 
1 


1 


1 

1 


"6 
1 

1 




.2 
'c 

> 


i 


No. 




* 
* 

-- 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


.. 


* 

* 

* 


-- 


^: 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

.... 

.... 
"V 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 



* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


_ 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
** 

* 

** 

* 

* 
** 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
** 

* 

** 
* 
* 


__ 




** 

** 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

** 

* 

* 
* 
** 


* 

** 

** 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

** 

* 

* 
** 

* 

* 
* 

** 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


"" 


77 
78 
79 
80 

81 
82 
83 

84 

85 
86 

87 
88 
89 
90 
91 

92 
93 
94 

95 

96 

97 

98 

99 

100 

101 

102 

103 

104 

105 

106 

107 

108 

109 

110 

111 

112 

113 
114 

115 
116 
117 
118 



224 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE N. 



The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity; 3d, the 
Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite a variety indicates that it succeeds 

The Abbreviations are as follows: Seasons, E. early, as Early Purple Guigne, etc., 
to the season ; M. medium season, those ripening between the 20th of June and 
tender-fleshed, sweet Cherries, such as Black Heart, Governor Wood, etc.; B. 
having more or less acidity, as May Duke, etc. ; M. Morellos, having generally 



No. 



NAME. 






33 



American Amber, 

American Heart, 

Bauman's May, 

May Bigarreau. 

Belle d'Orleans, 

Belle de Choisey, 

Belle Magnitique, 

Bigarreau, or Grafflon, 

Yelloio Spanish. 

White Bigarreau, of some. 

Black Bigarreau (new), 

Black Eagle, 

Black Heart, 

Black Tartarian, 

Buttner's October Morello, 

Carnation, 

Champagne (Downing), 

Cleveland Bigarreau (K.), 

Coe's Transparent, 

Donna Maria, 

Dow^ner's Late, 

Down ton, 

Early Purple Guigne, 

Elton, 

Great Bigarreau, of Downing, 

Guigne Noir Luisante, 

Governor Wood, 

Hovey, 

Jeffrey's Duke,. 

lioyale. 
Kentish, 

Early Richmond. 

Virginian May. 

Knight's Early Black, 

Late Duke, 

Louis Philippe, 

May Duke, 

Monsrreuse de Mezel, 

Great Bigarreau, of Mezel. 

Bigarreau Goublais, etc. 
Morello, 

English Blorello. 

Large Morello, etc. 



M. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



225 



CHERRIES. 



Class to which the Variety belongs; and the remainder the Districts in which the 
well in the district named at the head of the column. The Italics donote syuonymes. 
which usually ripen at Rochester (lat. 43°) from the 10th to the 20th of June, according 
the 20th of July; and L. late, those ripening after that time. Class, H. Hearts, or 
Bigarreau, or firm-fleshed, sweet Cherries, like Graflion, Napoleon, etc.; D. Dukes, 
acid fruit, used chiefly for kitchen or confectionary purposes. 





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* 

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* 

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1 

2 
3 

4 
5 
6 

7 

8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
. 14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 
2.5 
26 

27 

28 
29 
30 
31 
32 

33 



226 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 


NAME. 


< 


i 

< 


1 

03 

S 
cS 


1 

s 

es 


S 

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s 
s 
o 


i 

is 

Q 


1 
S 

s 
o 
O 

o 
S 


CS 

t 

'5 


t; 

o 

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a 


3 
O 
CO 

cJ- 

2 
o 


J3 

1 

i 

a 




34 

35 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 

43 


Napoleon Bigarreau, . - 

Holland Bigarreau. 
B 1(1 a rre au d 'Espe riii. 
Osceola 


M. 

M. 
L. 
M. 


B. 

B. 
M. 
H. 






* 




* 
* 


- 


* 


* 


* 
* 




Plumstone Morello, - - 




Red Jacket (K ) - - 








Rockport Bi""arreau (K.), 


M. 


B. 






-- 










Tecumseh (K.)i 


L. 
L. 

M. 


H. 
B. 

H. 






-- 




" 




-- 


-- 


-- 




Tradescant's Black Heart, 

Elkhorn. 

Large Black Bigarreau. 
White French Guigne, 









TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



227 



















^^ 




































2 


J= 












r 

o 


It 


s 


9 

eg 




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ej 


J^ 
















O 




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es 




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A 


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. 




























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^ 
















s 


S 


53 


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OhIPh 



No. 



34 



3.1 
36 
37 
38 
39 
40 
41 
42 



43 



228 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE O. 



The Columns indicate: 1st, the Kame of Variety; 2d, the Class (Freestone or Cling- 
Maturity; and the remainder tlie Districts in which the Varieties are recom- 
in the district named fit tlie head of the column. The Italics in the column of 

The Abbreviations are as follows: C/ass, F. Freestone; C. Clingstone. Color of Flesh, 
(in lat. 43^) previous to or about the 1st of September; V. E. very early; M. me- 
after that period; V. L. very late. A few only of the very early and very late 



No. 



NAME. 



6 


i 




» 


!?'S 


1^ 


a§ 


o 


w 


o 


« 


1-5 


M 


O 


'^ 


y 



Barnard, 

Early Barnard. 

Yelloio Barnard. 

Barringion, 

Bellegarde, 

Bergen's Yellow, 

Cambridge Belle, 

Carpenter's White, 

Cole's Early Red, 

Columbia, .- - 

Cooledge's Favorite, 

Crawford's Early Melocoton, 
Crawford's Late Melocoton, . 

DruidHill, -.-- 

Early Newington Freestone, 

Early Slocum,. 

Early Tillotson, 

Early York, 

Serrate Early York. 

Early Purple. 

Fay's Early Ann, 

George the Fourth, 

Grand Admirable, 

Grosse Mignonne, 

Haines' Early Red, 

Hales' Early (from Ohio), .. 

Heath Cling, .- 

Hill's Madeira, 

Madeira Freestone. 

Hyslop Cling, 

Jacques, _. 

Kenrick's Heath, 

Heath Freestone. 

La Grange, 

Large ILarly York, 

Large White Clingstone, 

Late Red Rareripe, _ 

Lemon Clingstone, 

Leopold Clingstone, 

Mala, 

Molden's White, 

Morris's White, 

Noblesse, 

Old Mixon Free, 



F. 



M. 



M. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
E. 
M. 
E. 
E. 



E. 

E. 
V.E. 
V.E. 



V.E. 

E. 

L. 

E. 

E. 
V.E. 

L. 

M. 

V.L. 

M. 

V.L. 



V.L. 
E. 



i: 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



229 



TEACHES. 



stone) to which the Variety belongs; 3d, the Color of the Flesh; 4th, the Season of 
mended. A star (*) opposite the name of a variety indicates that it succeeds well 
names donote synonymes. 

W. Wliite or pale-colored ; Y. Yellow or yellowish. Season, E. early, those ripening 
dium, those ripening from tlie 1st to the 15th of September; L. late, those ripening 
have been so designated. 





1 

c 
o 


o 

o 


OS 

1 


o 


1 


i 

'a 


c 


a 

CS 

be 

i 


p 




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c 




1 
1 


t 

s 

IS 


1 


5 
12; 




1 


1 

i 


i 

o' 

O 


1 


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s 




a 
a 

2 


o 
E 

> 


s 


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i 


No. 




* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

-- 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 


-- 


* 

- 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


" 




■" 


.. 
■" 

.. 
"' 
V. 
;; 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

.... 

* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


-- 


-- 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


'" 




* 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 

* 


__ 

* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 


* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

__ 

* 
* 

* 


" 


* 
* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

__ 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
"* 

-- 
* 

* 
* 


V. 


- 


- 


1 

2 
3 
4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 
23 
24 

25 

26 
27 

28 
29 
30 
31 
32 
33 
34 
35 
36 
37 
38 



20 



230 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



6 


CO 


« 


^ 




^ 


a§ 


O 


tf 


» 


o 


w 


^ 


« 


o 


ph 


JJ 



Old Mixon Cling, ... 

Rodman's Cling, 

Red Cling. 

Royal George, 

Scott's Nonpareil, ... 
Smock Freestone, ._. 

Snow, 

Stump the World,... 
Sturtevant (of Ohio), 

Susquehanna, 

Tippecanoe Cling,... 

Troth's Early, 

Van Zandt's Superb, 
Ward's Late Free,... 

Ware, 

White Imperial, 

Yellow Alberge, 

Yellow Rareripe, 



c. 


W. 


c. 


W. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


Y. 


F. 


Y. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


Y. 


F. 


Y. 


C. 


Y. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


W. 


F. 


Y. 


F. 


Y. 



L. 
V.L. 

E. 
L. 
L. 
M. 
L. 
M. 
M. 
L. 
E. 
E. 
V.L. 



TABLE O. 

The Explanation of the Columns and the List of Abbreviations 



No. 



NAME. 



. 


a 












eS 










i 
as 


O 


i 


i 




s 
2 


i 


.a 
g 
s 
o 

o 


i 


i 

'A 

s 

3S 


"S 

o 

CO 

a 


i 

o 

■i 




J 


•< 


a 


G 


j; 


*r 


o 


T-l 


1") 






o 




<a 


es 


O 














^ 


o 


cc 


O 


O 


'•J 


Q 


^ 


O 


^ 


^ 


^ 


F. 


Y. 


M. 




















F. 


W. 


M. 




.. 


.. 




.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


._ 


C. 


W. 


M. 




.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


._ 


F. 


Y. 


E. 


- 


-- 


-- 


-- 


-- 


-- 


* 


* 


-- 


F. 


W. 


M. 














* 


* 




F. 


W. 


L. 


-- 


-- 


-- 




-- 


" 






-- 



Boston, 

Downton,. 

Early Newington,. 

Early Violet,. 

Violette Hative. 

Elruge, 

Stanwick, 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



231 





1 

p. 


3 

4 

o 


cs 

o 




i 

c 


2 


i 
i 


o 

.1 


If 

ft 


1 


s 




i 

CJ 


t 
s 

S3 


2 


1 
o 


1 

5 
1 


i 

1-5 


o 

1 


1 


1 

.2 

O 


1 

1 
Pi 


s 

a 
a 
o 


i 

c 


o 
* 


o 
£ 

> 




o 
o 

'i 


No. 




* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 


- 


* 
* 

* 

* 


__ 


" 




-- 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 




-- 




-- 




* 
* 


* 

* 


* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 


* 


■] 


* 

- 

* 

* 




-- 


.. 


39 
40 

41 
42 
43 
44 
4r) 
46 
47 
48 
49 
50 
51 
52 
53 
54 
55 



NECTARINES. 

given under the head of Peaches are applicable also to this Table. 





1 

1 

•i 

;=: 


5 
2 


e3 

is 

5 


O 




i 


s 


3Iicliigan, North. 
Michigan, South 
of Saginaw Bay. 


a. 
I 


i 






t 

£ 


2 

1^ 


1 

o 


1 

o 


1 


o 

?^ 

6 

o 


03 
1 

3 


3 


1 

c 
s 


a 

a 

c 
S 




1 


c 
o 


ci 

a 

t 


a 
§ 

1 


No. 




-- 


-- 


-- 


" 




;; 




.. 





: 


-- 


* 
* 


-- 


-- 


-- 


* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


-- 


-- 




- 


-- 


-- 


-- 


" 


-- 




-- 


I 

2 
3 
4 

5 
6 



232 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE Q. 

The Explanation of the Columns and the List of Abbreviations 



No 


NAME. 


6 

-A 

< " 

-I 


O 
t 

o 


i 

< 


cs 


1 

5 


3 
1 


is 


S 
S 

o 

O 

o 


'So 

5 

o 


J3 
O 

« 

c 
•S 
-a 


o 
c 


O 
1 




1 
2 

3 
4 
''5 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 


Brc.ia, 

Early Golden, 

Lar:fe Early, 

L:u-clled, 

Lalavcitc, 


F. 

F. 
F. 
F. 


0. 
Y. 
0. 
0. 


M. 
E. 
E. 
M. 




'" 


-- 


-■ 


-- 




* 


* 


'I 




Moorpar k, 


F. 
C. 
F. 
F. 
F. 
F. 


0. 
0. 
Y. 
Y. 
Y. 
Y. 


M. 
E. 
M. 
E. 
E. 
L. 






"" 


* 
* 


-- 


" 


* 

* 


* 

* 


;". 




Orange {Royal Orange), 

Peach, 




Red Masculine, 

St. Ambroise, 

Turkey, 





TABLE R. 

The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Color of the Fruit; 3d, the 
best adapted; 5th, the Season of Maturity; and the remainder the Districts in 
indicates that it succeeds well in the district named at the head of the column. 

The Abbreviations are as follows: Color of Fruit, D. dark, including all red, purple, 
F. Freestone; C. Clingstone. Z7se, T. Table ; K. Kitchen; D. Drying; M. those 
V. L. very late. The divisons of the season for Peaches apply also {in lat. 43°) 



No. 


NAME. 


Eh 

o 

a 


6 

K 




i 


1 


to 
S 


5 

o 
I 




a 

s 
o 

o 


•i 
1 


1 

s 

s 
1—1 


o 

OS 
C 

1 


■a 

;-! 

O 

•f 




1 
2 
3 
4 
5 



7 
8 

9 
10 


T^lpolvOT^S C^^<^(^ 






























Bradsliaw, 

Coe's Golden Drop, 

(^^nlninliin 


D. 
P. 


c. 
c. 


M. 


E. 
L. 




-- 


* 


* 


:: 


- 


* 


* 
* 


* 
* 




Damson, 

Common Damson. 

Black Damson. 

Blue Damson. 
Duanc's Purple, 

Purple Marpmm Bonum. 

Early Favorite (Rivers'), 

Fellcmbcr;:;, 


D. 

D. 

D. 
D. 

D. 
P. 


c. 

F. 
F. 

F. 


K. 

.... 
D. 


L. 

M. 

VE. 
M. 

INI. 
M. 


-- 


__ 


-- 


- 


_ 


-- 


-- 


" 


* 




Kalian Prune. 
Qnetsche d'IfaUe. 
Prune iVItalie. 
German Prune, 




{Quefsche) 
General Hand, 


F. -- 





















TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



23^ 



- - - - . ArPvICOTS. 
given under the head of Peaches are applicable also to this Table. 





1 

c 


"5 

o 

"S 




o 




'3 


1 




la 

MS 


■p. 


i 


= 

Ci 




IS 
E, 
S 

es 


5S 


1 

s 

o 


1 

5 






"3 
o" 

5 


o 

o" 
O 


1 


1 

a 


1 

c 
c 


S 
CS 

O 

o 


5 

S 

— 




o 


No. 






__ 


\ 






'" 


]] 


.. 








1 

»!- 


.. 




* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 


* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 


-- 




"" 


-- 


* 
* 

* 


'J_ 


* 
* 

* 


1: 




-- 




1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 



PLUMS. 

Class (Freestone or Clingstone) to which the Variety belongs; 4th, the Uses to which 
which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite the name of a variety 
The Italics in the column of names donote synonyraes. 

blue, and other dark-colored varieties; P. pale, including green, yellow, etc. Class, 
most profitable for market. Season, E. early; M. medium; L. late; V. E. very early; 
to Plums 





2 


1 

1 


o 


1 


1 


6 


1 


I'li 

csl n sc 

fcC: ten 


'2 


o 




« 




ci 



> 


1 


;2i 


1 
1 


8 




— 



"5 


.2" 



1 


"5 

s 


1 


1 

c 

r-l 


'3 




C 


3 
> 


.2 
'S 
•5) 


•1 



No. 




* 
* 


[[ 


^ 


-- 




* 


-- 


-- 


* 

* 

* 


-- 


" 


* 
* 

* 

* 


* 
* 






* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 

» 

* 

* 


* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 


" 


* 


* 


* 

__ 


-- 


:: 


1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

6 

7 
8 

9 
10 



20^ 



234 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



No. 



NAME. 



Qio 



17 



Green Gage, 

EeineX'lcnide. 
Goliath,- 

Caledonian. 

Nectarine (by error). 

Huling's Superb, 

Imperial Gage, 

Prince's Imperial Gage. 

Flushing Gage. 

Jefferson, 

Lawrence's Favorite, 

Laiorence's Gage. 
Lombard, 

BeeJanan's Scarlet. 

BleeJcer's Scarlet. 

McLaughlin, 

Monroe, 

Monroe Gage. 

Orleans, Smith's, 

Peach Plum, 

Prune d'Agen,. 

D'Agen. 

Robe de Sergent. 
Purple Gage, 

Feine Claude Violette. 

Purple Favorite, 

Reine Claude de Bavay, 

Royal Hative, 

Royal de Tours, 

St. Catharine, 

St. Martin's Quetsche, 

Victoria, 

Alderton. 

Denyer's Victoria. 
Washington, 

Bolmar's. 
White Magnum Bonura, 

Yellow Magnum Bonum^ 

Yelloio Egg. 
Yellow Gage (Prince's), 



P. 


F. 


D. 


C. 


P. 


C. 


P. 


F. 


P. 


F. 


P. 


F. 


D. 


C. 


P. 


C, 


P. 


F. 


D. 


C. 


D. 


F. 


D. 


F. 


D. 


F. 


D. 


F. 


P. 


C. 


D. 


C. 


D. 


c. 


P. 


c. 


P. 


F. 


D. 


F. 


P. 


F. 


P. 


C. 


P. 


F. 



K. 



K. 



M. 



M. 



VL, 
M. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



235 



. 






£ 


j3 












3 




<v 


O 




U 


O) 










m 












O 


o 


C8 


C 




s 












o 






'"' 


"^ 








es tc 





















































^ 






w 


^ 






















-c 


3 


s 


ci 


,:£ 


^ 


^ 










,1* 








i; 


o 


E 




;« 


^^l'^ 




c 




& 


X> 


^ 


^ ^ 


o 






o 


!■ 


4) 


0) , O 




^ 


s 


'^ 


'A 


^ 


«;^ 


^ 



.oigicjc I 



s .2 

|I.S 

gi be 



?i^ 



No. 



17 



31 
32 

33 



236 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE S. 



No. 


NAME 


i 

C 


1 

B 
2 


1 

o 


t 


.2 

S 
s 
o 
O 

o 

+i 

1 


i 

1 


O 

5 

2 
■5 


s 
o 

2 

1 


o 
'A 

o 




1 
2 
3 


Orantre or Apple, 






1 






* 


* 


-- 




Portusral,. -- 






1 








Rea'.>^ Seecll iiiii;, 






1 














Rea's Blammoth. 
Van ShjTce. 





















TABLE T. 



The Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Season of Maturity; 3d, 

recommended. A star (*) opposite the name of a variety indicates that it succeeds 

The Abbreviations are as follows: Season, E. Early; M. Medium; L. Late. Color, 



No. 



NAME. 



S 

c3 4-' 



S i _C5 

5 i-S 



Bland's Madeira, . . . 

Brincklc, , 

Catawba, 

Sc'uppei-nong, 

Clinton, 

Concord, 

Cnyahoga, 

Delaware, 

Diana,.-. 

Elsinubnrfx, 

Hartford Prolific, 

Hybrid (Allen's),.... 

Isabella, 

Lenoir, 

Loi;an, 

Maxa' awny, 

Northern Muscadine, 

Oporto, 

Pauline, 

Rebecca, 

ToKalon, 

Union Village, 



R. 



B. 
B. 
W. 
R. 
R. 
B. 
B. 
W. 
B. 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



237 





- 




• 


- 




- 




- 


- 


- 




- 


QUINCES. 






















































































• 














J= 


"S «i 










C) 




^ 


V, 


























1 

1 


"5 
5 










C 


O 

c 

r; 


=■5 


'E. 


r" 


"0 


1 


t 
a 

C3 










o 


'a 


5 
o 


1 


1 


1 




r- 


CS 




No. 




o 


o 


C3 
O 




= 

><< 


- 


S 
^ 


U 

1 
§ 


P 


1 


o 






Si- 

III 




12; 


O 


O 




^s 




1 


t^ 


> 


i 






.. 


J.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 




.. 


.... 


.. 








.. 




* 


* 


* 




.. 




* 




* 






.. 




1 




-- 


.. 


.- 


-- 


-- 


.. 


.. 


.- 




-- 


.. 




-- 


-. 


.- 


.- 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


.. 


* 


.. 


* 


.. 


.. 




,. 


2 


































* 


* 






1 















3 



NATIVE GRAPES. 



the Color of the Fruit; and the remainder the Districts in which the Varieties are 
well in the district named at the head of the column. 
B. Black; K. Ked; W. White. 





1 

o 


1 

CO 

'S 


ci 
1 




'I 

5 


6 


C3 

1 


o 

.1 


b'3: 


.1 


o 




1 


1 

t 

s 

es 


si 

1 


s 


1 
if 

o 


1 


o 

12; 
o 


1 

5 


s 
o 

.2 

O 


1 

i 


s 

c 

& 


1 


c 

1 




"3d 


a 

1 


No. 




* 

* 
* 

* 

.. 
.. 

__ 


* 

;; 
2^ 








* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


]] 


:: 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


:: 


-- 


* 

* 
* 

__ 

* 
* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


__ 




* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

"" 

"" 

* 

* 


* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 






1 
2 
3 
4 
5 

7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 
19 
20 
21 
22 



238 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE U. 



No. 



NAME. 



*' S 3 

Cj K W R 

c = S ^ 

« « 5 "^ 

O wi ^ M 



Attractor, 

Black Naples, 

Champagne, 

Cherry, 

Common Black {Black English), 

Fertile de Palliiaii,... 

Fertile d' Answers, 

Gondouin Red, 

Gondouin White, 

Knight's Large Red, 

La Versaillaise, 

May's Victoria, 

Prince Albert, 

Red Dutch, 

Red Grape, 

Ti-ansparent White, 

White Dutch, 

White Grape, 



White, 

Black, 

Flesh, 

Red, 

Black, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

White, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

White, 

White, 

White, 



TABLE V. 



No. 


NAME 


1 

8 

1 


•a 
cs 


c 

cS 


5 

1 

i 


1 


1 

3 
O 

;-) 

O 

S 


;- 
g 


1 

'A 

.2 

"5 


s 
o 

«r 

s 
.5 


o 

■f 




1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 


American Seedling, 

Champagne, 

Crown Bob, 

Downing's Seedling, 

Early Sulphur, 


Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Green, 

Yellow, 

Green, 

Green, 

Red, 

Red, 

Green, 

Red, 

Red, 

White, 














-- 








Green Gage, 

Green Walnut, 

Houghton's Seedling, 

Ironmonger, 

Laurel, 

Moun tain Seedli ng, 

Warrington, 

Woodward's Whitesmith, 





TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



239 



CURRANTS. 





1 

1 

o 


3 
1 


o 


a. 


1 

1 


6 
"a 


C 


o 

1 

o 


1% 
If 


1 


i 


s 


1 

1 

CI 


i 

s 


C3 

1 


1 
O 


1 

o 

4) 




o 
"A 

.% 

O 


1 
1 

.2 

O 


a 
1 


1 

1 


1 

G 

S 


s 

^0* 


S 

1 


c 

1 


.2 


.Sr 

s 


No. 








__ 






" 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 






* 

* 

* 

* 


-- 


" 


* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 
* 


" 


__ 


* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 


* 

* 
* 


* 
* 


* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 


:: 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 


-- 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


-- 


■■ 
-■ 


1 
2 
3 
4 

6 
7 
8 
9 
10 
11 
12 
13 
14 
15 
16 
17 
18 



GOOSEBERRIES. 



























































^ 












o 


s 
o 
a2 




tA 






i 


'A 












o 


rr 














sc 






-1 




fl> 




S 


ej 


c 


w 


"cs 


III 


^ 


*"' 


- 


'-< 


s 


'^ 


^ 






es'tc 



^ 












« 












>. 






_4 








S 


s: 


03 


j= 


• 


o 




o 


S 
O 


=« r 


& 


^ 


o 


o 


•2 f= 


41 


<o 






j= S 


» 


^ 


O 


O 


O 


^1 



s 

4) fc. 



I'll 



No. 



240 



ADAPTATION OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE X. 



No. 



NAME. 



American Black, 

Antwerp Red, of Hudson River 

Antwerp Yellow, 

Belle de Fontenay, 

Catawissa, 

Fastolff, 

Franconia, .-. 

French, 

Vice-President Fi'ench. 

Knevitt's Giant, 

Merveille de 4 Saisons,. 

Oranire, 

BrincJcIe's Orange. 
Ohio Everlastin"-, 



Black, 

Red, 

Yellow, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 

Red, 
Red, 
Yellow, 

Black, 











C5 




































^ 




• 














P 




•n 


J-i. 


s 


"JT' 


^j 


■J. 




3 




o 
5 


^ 


X 


2 


1 


1 

"5 


t 

CS 


5 




O 

03 
C 

.s 

"5 


o 
'A 

"S 

a 




















o 


W 




w 


W 


o 


-,,M 


^ 


* 


-- 


" 








■■ 




'" 


-- 


-. 


* 












-- 


-- 


-- 


* 








* 


* 


-- 


* 


" 


* 








* 

* 


* 
* 


-- 


-- 


-- 


* 










-- 


-- 


:: 


-- 


* 


:: 


:: 


:: 


* 
* 


* 
* 


-- 



TABLE Y. 















.: 
























^ 






_; 






No. 


NAME. 


1 


1 




6 


2 

3 
O 




o 


3 
O 


.a 
o 








cs ■ cs 1 « 3 ;■+:;' .5 


esl es 










mi'M^ 


i^i 


•3 

a 




















^1^ 


^i^ 


MP 


•^r 


'^ 




1 


Dorchester, — 






* * 














2 


New Rochclle, or Lawton, 


... 


-- 


* * 




-- 


^ 


" 


-' 





TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



241 



RASPBERRIES. 





O 
1 


1 
o 






1 




1 

s 


o 

i= 
.fcx: 


If 


'p. 


5 

1 




-2 

s 
1 


t 

s 

n 


C3 


+3 

1 

O 


1 
o 

J?; 


>> 

s 

•-5 

4) 


O 

c 
O 


1 
a) 

O 


i'i 


"3 

Z 

B 

<0 


i 


•a 
2 


> 


i 


a 
1 

1 


No. 




-- 


__ 


-- 


.. 


-- 


* 

* 
* 

* 




-- 


* 
* 


.. 


-- 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


^; 


__ 


-- 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 
* 

* 




* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 


]] 




1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
G 
7 
8 

9 
10 
11 

12 



BLACKBERRIES. 



















1 _ ^• 












































2 

I 


5 

"3 

o 




>> 






« 


.1 ..s 


a 




"d 


1 


s 


. 


^ 
f 




1' 


u 
O 


1 
a 


s 


-u 
rt 


1 

a 

0) 


>- 


a 






a 


No, 






■i 

a 


es 


1 
a 


i 


oj 


S 

5 




_x 


c 


cs 


1 




1 


o 


o 


1-5 


6 




5 


a 


o 


o 


■Eb 


a 






s 


5 


o 


^o- 


;i; 




S 


S 


s 


3 


o 

^ 




o 

^ 


O 1 4J 


o 


5 


5|^i;2; 


£ 


^ 

^ 


o 

^ 


^1^ 






.. 


.... 


.. 


„ 


* 


.. 




* 


.. 


.. 


* 


* 


.. 


-- * 


* 


* 


.. 




.. 


, 


.. 


* 


.. 


* 


.. 


.- 1 




" 





" 


-- 


* 


-- 


-- 


* 


-- 


-- 


* 


* 


-- 


- * 


* 


* 


-- 


-- 


"■ 


* 


-- 


* 


-- 


* 


-- 


.. 2 



21 



242 



ADAPTATIOI!^ OF VARIETIES OF FRUIT 



TABLE Z. 



Tlie Columns indicate: 1st, the Name of Variety; 2d, the Sex (Hermaphrodite or 

which the Varieties are recommended. A star (*) opposite the name of a variety 

The Abbreviations are as follows: Sex^F. Pistillate; all others are Hermaphrodite ; 



No. 



NAME. 



S3 
w o 



5 Q 



Alice Maude, 

Brighton Pine, 

British Queen, 

Boston Pine, 

Burr's New Pine, 

Crimson Cone, 

Downer's Prolific, .-. 

Fillmore, 

Genesee, -.. 

Hooker, 

Hovey's Seedling, .-. 

Iowa, 

Jenny's Seedling, ... 

Jenny Lind, 

La Constante, 

Large Early Scarlet, . 
Longworth's Prolific, 
McAvoy's Superior, . 

Monroe Scarlet, 

Moyamensing, 

Scott's Seedling, 

Triomphe de Gand,.. 
TroUope's Victoria,.. 
Walker's Seedling, .. 
Wilson's Albany, 



F. 
A. 
F. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
F. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
A. 
F. 
F. 
A. 
A. 



* * 
* 



TO DIFFERENT DISTRICTS. 



243 



STRAWBERRIES. 



Pistillate); 3d, the Origin, American or Foreign; and the remainder the Districts in 
indicates that it succeeds well in the district named at the head of the column. 
Origin, A. American; F. Foreign. 





1 

o 
.5 


! 


cS 

is 

o 


1 


i 


2 


d 

o 

1 

i 






1 


i 




1 
1 


1 

t 

e 

CS 


a; 


1 

o 


i 

o 


i 


o 

O 


■i 

O 


1 

O 




1 

1 


i 

q 
1 


•d 

<a 
o 


ii 


o 


No. 




-- 


-- 


■" 


-- 

■■ 


-- 


* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 


-- 


-- 


* 

* 

* 
* 




.. 


* 

* 
* 

* 

* 

* 


* 
* 

** 

* 

* 
* 

* 


" 




* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 
* 

* 
* 


_" 




"" 
__ 

-- 


* 
* 

* 
* 
* 

* 
* 


* 

* 
* 

* 


* 
* 
* 
* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 
* 
* 

* 


* 
* 

* 

* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 


* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 
* 

* 

* 
* 

* 




-- 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 

6 

7 

8 

9 

10 

11 

12 

13 

14 

15 

16 

17 

18 

19 

20 

21 

22 

23 

24 

25 



244 THE BEST SORTS FOR CULTIVATION. 

§ II. BEST SIX, TEN, TWELTE, OR TWENTY VARIETIES. 

It is of great importance to the practical fruit- 
grower to know not only what varieties will flourish 
well in his locality, as set forth in the preceding 
pages, but also in what manner those varieties 
should be combined so as to secure him an orchard 
of the greatest value for domestic use and for the 
market. To teach the latter lesson, we have col- 
lated, from the issues of the American Pomological 
Society, and from other authentic sources, the follow- 
ing results of the experience and observation of the 
best cultivators in a number of the states of the 
American Union. 

It has been our aim to obtain full reports on this 
point from every part of the country. But this has 
been in a measure prevented by circumstances be- 
yond our control. We have classified these results 
geograpliically^ so that cultivators, in states from 
which we have no returns, can form their judgment 
as to the combination of varieties, so as to secure 
the best reward of labor and expenditure from an 
inspection of returns from other states in their 
vicinity. As reliable data may be received by us 
from other states and territories, and from the Pa- 
cific coast and the British provinces, we shall add 
them to these specifications, in the hope of accumu- 
lating ultimately the ripe experience of American 
fruit-growers. 



FOR MAINE AND MASSACHUSETTS. 



245 



L NEW ENGLAND STATES. 



1. FOR MAINE. 



RarasdeH's Sweet, 
Red Astrachan, 
Sweet Bough, 
Early Harvest, 



BEST VAUIETIES OF APPLES. 

R. I. Greening, 
Black Oxford, 
Coggswell, 
Ribstone Pippin. 



PEAKS. 



Urbanlste, 

Fulton, 

Beurre Clairgeau, 

Doyenne Boussock, 



Winter Nells, 
Onondaga, 
Dearborn's Seedling, 
Lawrence. 



Imperial Gage, 
McLaughlin, 
Green Gage, 
Washington, 



CHERRIES. 

Only the Dukes and Morellos. 



Lombard, 

Relne Claude de Bavay, 

Coe's Golden Drop. 



2. FOR MASSACHUSETTS. 



BEST SIX VAKIETIES OF APPLES. 



Williams, 
Early Bough, 
Gravenstein, 



Fameuse, 

Hubbardston, 

Baldwin. 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES ADD : 



Red Astrachan, 
R. I Greening, 
Ladies* Sweet, 



Roxbury Russet, 
Smith's Cider, 
Talman's Sweet. 



21* 



246 



FOR MASSACHUSETTS AND RHODE ISLAND. 



VARIETIES OF PEARS, ON PEAR STOCK, FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Bartlett, 

Urbaniste, 

Vicar of Winkfield, 

Buffum, 

Beurre d'Anjou, 

Lawrence, 



Rostiezer, 
Merriam, 
Flemish Beauty, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Doyenne Boussock, 
Onondaga. 



Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Urbaniste, 

Duchesse d'Angouleme, 



ON QUINCE. 



Vicar of Winkfield, 
Beurre d'Anjou, 
Glout Morceau. 



BEST VARIETIES OF STRAWBERRIES. 



Early Scarlet, 
Hovey, 
Boston Pine, 



Jenny Lind, 
Briofbton Pine. 



BEST VARIETIES OF GRAPES FOR OUT-DOOR CULTURE. 



Delaware, 
Diana, 



Concord, 
Hartford Prolific. 



3. rOR RHODE ISLAND. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Harvest 10 

William's Favorite .... 10 
Porter 15 



Baldwin 25 

R. I. Greening 25 

Roxbury Russet 15 



BEST TWELVE. 



Early Harvest 4 

Early Sweet Bough .... 4 
William's Favorite .... 6 

Porter 10 

Gravenstein 4 

Beauty of Kent 4 



R. I. Greening 20 

Peck's Pleasant 5 

Baldwin 20 

Hubbardston Nonesuch . . .10 

Sheppard's Sweet 3 

Roxbury Russet 10 



FOR RHODE ISLAND. 



247 



BEST TWENTY. 



Ji^arly Harvest 3 

Golden Sweet 2 

Red Astrachan 2 

AVilliam's Favorite .... 3 

Early Bough 2 

Forter 6 

Pomme Royale 2 

Dartmouth Sweet 3 

Beauty of Kent 2 

Gravenstein 3 



Fall Pippin 4 

Hubbardston Nonesuch ... 4 

Peck's Pleasant 4 

Yellow Bellefluer 3 

Talman's Sweet 2 

R. I. Greening 20 

Baldwin 20 

Sheppard's Sweet 4 

Northern Spy 3 

Roxbury Russet 8 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEAKS FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES ON PEAR STOCK. 



Dearborn's Seedling . . . .10 

Beurre Giffard 10 

Bartlett 30 



Pratt 20 

Fondante d'Automne . . . .15 
Lawrence 15 



BEST TWELVE. 



Bloodgood 5 

Beurre Giffard 5 

Dearborn's Seedling .... 5 
Doyenne Boussock .... 5 

Bartlett 20 

Belle Lucrative 10 



Pratt 15 

Flemish Beauty 10 

Seckel 5 

Buffum 5 

Lawrence 10 

Easter Beurre 5 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEARS FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Beurre Giffard 15 

Louise bonne de Jersey ... 35 
Duchesse d'Angouleme ... 20 



Beurre Diel 10 

Urbaniste 10 

Glout Morceau 10 



BEST TWELVE. 



Beurre Giffard 10 

Doyenne d'Ete 5 

Rostiezer 5 

Beurre d'Amaulis 5 

Belle Lucrative 10 

Beurre d'Anjou 10 



Urbaniste 5 

Louise bonne de Jersey ... 20 
Duchesse d'Angouleme . . .10 

Beurre Diel 10 

Glout Morceau 6 

Easter Beurre 4 



248 



FOR CONNECTICUT. 



4. FOR CONNECTICUT. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOB ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Harvest 2 

Golden Sweet 10 

Cayuo-a Red Streak . . . .10 



Talman's Sweet 8 

R. I. Greening 50 

Roxbury Russet 20 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Harvest 2 

Early Bough 1 

Spice Apple 1 

Golden Sweet 5 

Cayuga Red Streak . . . .10 
Yellow Bellefleur 1 



Fall Pippin 5 

Talman's Sweet 5 

Peck's Pleasant 10 

Esopus Spitzenberg . . . .10 

R. I. Greening 30 

Roxbury Russet 20 



PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Bartlett 

Fondante d'Automne 
Paradise d'Automne . 

Seckel 

Flemish Beauty . . 
Louise bonne de Jersey 



Gansel's Bergamotte .... 2 

Beurre Diel 2 

Vicar of Winkfield .... 25 

Lawrence 10 

Winter Nelis 2 

Buffura 2 



BEST TEN VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Louise bonne de Jersey. 
Belle Lucrative, 
Urban iste, 
Flemish Beauty, 
Beurre Diel, 



Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Beurre d'Anjou, 
Glout Morceau, 
Vicar of Winkfield, 
Easter Beurre, 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES. 



Early York, 
Coolidge's Favorite, 
George IV., 



Morris' White, 
Late Red Rareripe, 
Bergen's YelloAv. 



FOR NEW YORK. 



249 



II. MIDDLE STATES. 

1. FOR NEW YORK. 

BEST SIX VARIETIES OP APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 

Red Astrachan 10 Baldwin 

Fall Pippin 12 Talman's Sweet . . . 

E. I. Greening 24 I Roxbury Russet . . 



24 
20 
10 



BEST TWELVE. 

Early Harvest 4 

Red Astrachan 4 

Sweet Bough ...... 4 

Primate 4 

Gravenstein 4 

Fall Pippin 6 



20 oz. Pippin 8 

R. I. Greening 24 

King Tompkins Co 4 

Talman's Sweet 10 

Baldwin 18 

Roxbury Kusset 10 



BEST TWENTY. 



Early Harvest 4 

Red Astrachan 4 

Early Joe 2 

Primate 2 

Sweet Bough 2 

Jersey Sweet 2 

Porter 2 

Fall Pippin 4 

Gravenstein 4 

Belmont 4 



20 oz. Pippin 8 

R. I. Greening 12 

King Tompkins Co 6 

Fameuse 4 

Mother 4 

Talman's Sweet 8 

Ladies' Sweet 4 

Baldwin 10 

Northern Spy 4 

Roxbury Russet 10 



BEST VARIETIES FOR MARKET, FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Red Astrachan . . . 
Golden Sweet .... 
Duchesse of Aldenburgh 
20 oz. Pippin .... 



60 

60 

80 

200 



R. I. Greening 200 

Talman's Sweet 100 

Baldwin 200 

Roxbury Russet 100 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. 



Beurre GIffard, 

Bartlett, 

Tyson, 



Seckel, 

Sheldon, 

Lawrence. 



250 



FOR NEW YORK AND NEW JERSEY. 



rOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 



Bloodgood, 
Flemish Beauty, 
Ducbesse d' Orleans, 



Beurre Clairgeau, 
Winter Nelis, 
Vicar of Winkfield. 



BEST SIX VAEIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 

Beurre GifFard, Duchesse d'Angouleme, 

Brandy wine, Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Belle Lucrative, Vicar of Winkfield. 



Beurre Langelier, 
Beurre DIel, 
Urbaniste, 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 

Easter Beurre, 
Glout Morceau, 
Beurre d'Anjou. 



Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Louise bonne de Jersey 
Glout Morceau, 



FOR THE MARKET. 

Easter Beurre, 
Vicar of Winkfield. 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OP PEACHES. 



Early York, 

Senate, 

Early Newington, 

Crawford's Early, 

Coolidge's Favorite, 

Walter's Early, 

Morris' White, 



Old Mixon Free, 
Old Mixon Cljng, 
Bed Cheek Melocoton. 
George IV., 
Crawford's Late, or 
Langworthy's Late Rareripe. 



FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early York Serrate .... 25 

Crawford's Early 20 

Old Mixon Free 20 



Old Mixon Cling 10 

Bed Cheek Melocoton . . .15 
Langworthy's Late . . . .10 



2. FOR NEW JERSEY. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Yellow Harvest 5 

Maiden Blush 10 

Fall Pippin 10 



R. I. Greening 25 

Baldwin 25 

Roxbury Russet 25 



FOR NEW JERSEY. 



251 



BEST TWELVE 



Yellow Harvest 5 

Maiden Blush 8 

Hubbardston Nonesuch ... 8 

Sweet Bough 5 

Fall Pippin 8 

R. I. Greeninsf 10 



Baldwin .... 
Yellow Bellefleur . 
Monmouth Pippin 
Esopus Spitzenberg 
Newtown Pippin . 
Roxbury Russet 



BEST TWENTY 

Yellow Harvest 3 

Sweet Bough ...... 2 

Summer Hagloe 3 

Maiden Blush 5 

Fall Pippin 5 

Gravenstein 5 

Jersey Sweet 2 

Hubbardston Nonesuch ... 5 

R. I. Greening 10 

Baldwin 8 



Monmouth Pippin . . . 
Yellow Bellefleur . . . 
Newtown Pippin . . . 
Talman's Sweet . . . 

Dominie 

Seeknofurther (Westfield) 
Esopus Spitzenberg . . 
Roman Stem .... 
Roxbury Russet . . . 
Lady Apple 



10 
10 

10 
10 



BEST VARIETIES FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Yellow Harvest 30 

Sweet Bough 25 

Maiden Blush 50 

Fall Pippin 50 

Gravenstein 50 

Jersey Sweet 25 

Hubbardston Nonesuch . . 50 

R. I. Greening 100 

Baldwin 60 

Yellow Bellefleur .... 60 

Talman's Sweet 25 



Esopus Spitzenberg 
Newtown Pippin . 
Monmouth Pippin 
Roxbury Russet 
Dominie . . 
Lady Apple 
Smith's Cider 
Seeknofurther 
Roman Stem 
Wine . . . 



50 
50 
75 
75 
50 
25 
50 
50 
25 
25 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. 



Beurre Giffard, 

Bartlett, 

Seckel, 



Beurre d'Anjou, 
Winter Nehs, 
Glout Morceau. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD ; 



Madeleine, 
Belle Lucrative, 
St. Ghislain, 



Vicar of Winkfield, 
Beurre Diel, 
Easter Beurre. 



252 



FOR NEW JERSEY. 



BEST FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Madeleine . . . 
Beurre Giffard . . 
Bloodgood . . . 
Dearborn's Seedling 



Rostiezer 1 

Tyson 1 

Bartlett 5 

Heathcot 2 

Belle Lucrative 5 

St. Ghislain 2 

Flemish Beauty 5 

Beurre Bosc 5 

Andrews 3 

Louise bonne de Jersey ... 5 

Seckel 5 

Duchessc d'Angouleme ... 2 

Beurre d' Anjou 5 



Urbaniste . . . 
Beurre Clairgeau . 
Sheldon .... 
Vicar of Winkfield 
Beurre Diel . . . 
Winter Nelis . . 
Lawrence . . . 
Glout Morceau . . 
Bergamotte d'Esperen 
Doyenne d'Alencon 
Easter Beurre . . 
Windsor (for cooking) 
Jargonelle (for cooking) 
Hericart (for cooking) 
Hessel (for cooking) 
Uvedale's St. Germain 



BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Madeleine 

Beurre Giffard . . . 

Bloodgood 

Dearborn's Seedling . . 

Rostiezer 

Tyson 

Bartlett 

Heathcot 

Belle Lucrative . . . 
St. Ghislain .... 
Flemish Beauty . . . 
Beurre Bosc .... 

Andrews 

Louise bonne de Jersey 

Seckel 

Duchesse d'Angouleme . 
Beurre d'Anjou . . . 



5 

10 

5 

5 

5 

5 

100 

20 

25 

20 

50 

50 

20 

50 

50 

10 

50 



Urbaniste 50 

Beurre Clairgeau . . . . 25 

Sheldon 30 

Vicar of Winkfield .... 50 

Beurre Diel 50 

Winter Nelis 30 

Lawrence 30 

Glout Morceau 50 

Bergamotte d'Esperen ... 50 

Doyenne d'Alencon .... 50 

Columbia 25 

Easter Beurre 50 



Windsor 

Jargonelle .... 

Hericart 

Hessel 

Uvedale's St. Germain 



5 
5 
5 
5 

10 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Rostiezer, 
Belle Lucrative, 



Beurre d'Anjou, 
Beurre Diel, 



FOR NEW JEESEY. 



253 



Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Louise bonne de Jersey, 
Vicar of Winkfield, 
Bergamotte d'Esperen, 

FOR 0]!JE 

Doyenne d'Ete 

Kosliezer 

Bartlctt 

Duchesse d'Angouleme . . . 

Bon d'Ezee 

Belle Lucrative 

Beurre Superfin 

Andrews 

Stevens' Genesee 

Henry IV 

Doyenne Boussock . . . . 

Kirtland's Beurre 

Buffum 

Kingsesslng 

Flemish Beauty 



Glout Morceau, 
Doyenne d'Ete, 
Doyenne d'Alencon, 
Easter Beurre. 



HUWDEED TREES. 

Louise bonne de Jersey . . .10 

Urbaniste 5 

Beurre d'Anjou 10 

Vicar of Winkfield .... 5 

Beurre Diel 5 

Columbia 3 

Glout Morceau 5 

Beurre Lan^elier 3 



Bergamotte d'Esperen ... 3 

Doyenne d'Alencon .... 2 

Easter Beurre 1 

Catillac 2 

Uvedale's St. Germain ... 2 

Epine Dumas 2 



FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Doyenne d'Ete . . . 

Rostiezer 

Bartlett 

Duchesse d'Angouleme . 
Bon d'Ezee .... 
Belle Lucrative . . . 
Beurre Superfin . . 

Andrews 

Stevens' Genesee . . 

Henry IV 

Doyenne Boussock . . 
Kirtland's Beurre . . 

Buffum 

Kinn-sessinsj .... 
Flemish Beauty . . . 



10 
10 
35 
100 
25 
25 
25 
25 
25 
5 
25 
10 
25 
10 
25 



Louise bonne de Jersey . .100 

Urbaniste 50 

Beurre d'Anjou 75 

Vicar of Winkfield .... 75 

Beurre Diel 65 

Columbia 50 

Glout Morceau 75 

Beurre Langelier .... 25 

Bergamotte d'Esperen ... 30 

Doyenne d'Alencon . . . ■ . 25 

Easter Beurre 10 

Catillac 10 

Uvedale's St. Germain ... 10 

Epine Dumas 20 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES. 



Early Newinpjton, 
Early Crawford, 
Late Crawford, 



George IV., 
Old Mixon Free, 
Morris' White. 



22 



254 



FOR NEW JERSEY AND PENNSYLVANIA. 



rOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 



Early York, 
Old Mixon Clinc 
Noblesse, 



Grosse Mignonne, 
Late Heath, 
Royal George. 



3. FOR PENNSYLVANIA. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP APPLES TOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Harvest 5 

Falla water 20 

Townsend 10 



Baldwin 20 

Smoke House 25 

Golden Russet of Mass. ... 20 



BEST TWELVE. 



Early Harvest 2 

Jeifries 3 

R. I. Greening 10 

Roman Stem 10 

Townsend 4 

Holland Pippin 4 



Baldwin 15 

Lady 10 

Benoni 2 

Smoke House 20 

American Golden Russet . .10 
English Golden Russet ... 10 



BEST TWENTY. 



Knowles' Early 1 

Benoni 1 

Maiden Blusli 4 

Rambo 5 

Baldwin 6 

Wine Sap 5 

Pennoch 5 

Early Harvest 2 

American Summer Pearmaln . 2 

Holland Pippin 4 



Fallawater 10 

American Golden Russet . . 5 

Smith's Cider 5 

English Golden Russet . . .10 

Townsend 3 

Jeffries 2 

Smoke House 15 

Paradise 5 

Roman Stem 5 

Ailes 5 



BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Early Redstreak 25 

Maiden Blush 25 

Smith's Cider 100 

Townsend 25 

Smoke House 500 



Lady 100 

American Summer Pearmain 25 

Fallawater 100 

Golden Russet 100 



FOR PENNSYLVANIA AND VIRGINIA. 



255 



BEST SIX VAEIETIKS OF PEAKS ON PEAK STOCK. 



Beurre Gilfard 5 

Bartlett 10 

Tyson 10 



Seckel 15 

Belle Lucrative 10 

Lawrence 10 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES FOU ONE THOUSAND TREES. 

Belle Lucrative 50 

Duchesse de Brabant ... 25 

Tyson 50 

Bartlett 500 

Beurre Bosc 25 

Lawrence 100 



Doyenne d'Ete 25 

Rostiezer 25 

Washington 25 

Seckel 100 

Beurre Giflard 50 

St. Ghislain 25 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 

Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Glout Morceau. 



Rostiezer, 

Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Brandywine, 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Troth's Early Red 15 

George IV 15 

Large Early York 20 



Ward's Late Free 20 

Coolidge's Favorite . . . .10 
Molden White 20 



BEST TAVELVE VARIETIES FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Troth's Early Red 
Coolidge's Favorite 
Old Mixon Free . 
Molden White . 
Large Early York 



George IV. 



150 

50 

25 

100 

200 

50 



Crawford's Late 100 

Ward's Late Free . . . .100 

Red Rareripe 50 

Morris' White 25 

Druid Hill 50 

Late Heath 100 



III. SOUTHERN STATES. 



1. FOR VIRGINIA. 

BEST VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Mary 5 

Stripe June 5 

Carter 5 



Red Cathead 5 

Brooke's Pippin 10 

Holady's Seedling 10 



256 



FOR VIRGINIA. 



Summer Golden Pippin . • . 5 

Porter 5 

Baltimore Pippin 5 

Robey's Seedling 5 

Winter Cheese 5 



Rawle's Janetting 10 

Northern Spy 5 

Wine Sap 10 

Limber Twio; 10 



BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Mary 20 

Stripe June 20 

Carter 20 

Summer Golden Pippin ... 20 

Benoni • . 20 

Spice 20 

Porter 20 

Red Cathead 20 

Baltimore Pippin 20 

Robey's Seedling 20 

Robertson's White • • . .20 

Yellow Bellefleur 20 

Bowling's Sweet 10 

Winter Cheese 50 



Brook's Pippin 50 

Holady's Seedling 50 

Rawle's Janetting 50 

Northern Spy 50 

Wine Sap 50 

Limber Twig 50 

Waugh's Crab 50 

Strawn's Seedling 50 

Welford's Yellow 50 

Oglesby 50 

Milan 50 

Long Island Russet .... 50 

Nicker Jack 50 

Calasaga 50 



BEST TWENTY VARIETIES OP PEARS ON PEAR STOCK FOB ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Bartlett, 

Julienne, 

Beurre d'Amaulis, 

White Doyenne, 

Nouveau Poiteau, 

Seckel, 

Vicar of Winkfield, 

Hawes' Winter, 

Taylor's Winter, 

Lawrence, 



Catinka, 
Madeleine, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Tyson, 
Beurre Diel, 
Oswego Beurre, 
Urbaniste, 
Flemish Beauty, 
Winter Nelis, 
Buffum. 



BEST TWENTY VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK 



Madeleine, 
Julienne, 
White Doyenne, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Bartlett, 



Seckel, 

Vicar of Winkfield, 

Beurre Easter, 

Glout Morceau, 

Lawrence, 



FOR VIRGINIA AND GEORGIA. 



257 



Rouselet de Stutgart, 
Beurre Diel, 
Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Oswego Beurre, 
Louise bonne de Jersey, 



Taylor's Virginia, 
Winter Nelis, 
Bezi de la Motte, 
Beurre Clairgeau. 



2. FOR GEORGIA. 



BEST SEVENTEEN VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Red June (summer) . . . 
Cane Creek Sweet (summer) 
Julien (summer) .... 
Sweet Paradise (summer) . 
Bachelor (autumn) . . . 
Disharoon (autumn) . . . . 
Chistalee (autumn, for cooking 
Rome Beauty (autumn) . . 
Berry (winter) 



Buff (winter) . . . 
Camak's (winter sweet) 
Calasaga (winter) 
Cullawkee .... 
Equinetley (winter) . 
Hoover (winter) . . 
Maverick's Sweet (winter) 
Nickerjack (winter) . . 



3 

10 

5 

3 

20 

10 

10 

9 



BEST TWELVE. 



Red June (summer) . . 
Julien (summer) . . . 
Cane Creek Sweet (summer 
Bachelor (autumn) . . 
Disharoon (autumn) . . 
Rome Beauty (autumn) . 



Nickerjack (winter) . 
Equinetley (winter) . 
Camak's (winter sweet) 
Calasaga (winter) 
Junaluskee (winter) . 
Winter Queen (winter) 



10 
20 
20 
10 
10 
4 



Julien 6 

Bachelor G 

Nickerjack 26 



Equinetley 26 

Camak's Sweet 26 

Hoover 10 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK;. 



Doyenne d'Ete, 
Beurre Bosc, 
Bartlett, 



Winter Nelis, 

Seckel, 

Beurre Oris d' Hiver nouveau. 



90* 



258 



FOR GEORGIA. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD; 



Bloodgood, 

Sterling, 

Belle Lucrative, 



White Doyenne, 

Lawrence, 

Compte de Flanders. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Doyenne d'Ete, 
Duchesse de Berri d'Ete, 
Louise bonne de Jersey, 



Glout Morceau, 
Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Easter Beurre. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 



Beurre Diel, 

Rostiezer, 
Soldat Laboreur, 



Lawrence, 
White Doyenne, 
Belle Epine Dumas. 



FOR AN ORCHARD OF ONE HUNDRED OR ONE THOUSAND TREES, WITH THE ABOVE 
ALSO INCLUDE : 



BufFum, 

Manning's Elizabeth, 

Camok's, 

Beurre d'Anjou, 

Delices d'Harden pont, 

Columbia, 

Flemish Beauty, 

Beurre Langelier, 

Neighbors, 



Van Asche, 

Beurre Clairgeau, 

Henry IV., 

Tyson, 

Heathcot, 

Kirtland, 

Rivers' AVinter Beurre, 

Sheldon. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEACHES. 



Early Tillotson, 
Stump the World, 



Large Early York, 
La Grange, 
Boudi- 



Serrate Ispahan, 
Washington Rareripe (of Par- 
sons), 
Washington Cling, 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD : 

Chinese Clini 



Edwards' Late White, 
Hull's Athenian. 



FOR GEORGIA AND MISSISSIPPI. 



259 



FOR AN ORCHARD OF ONE HUNDRED OR ONE THOUSAND TREES, WE SHOULD ADD 
TO THE ABOVE, OF CLINGSTONES: 



Georgia Cling, 
Tippecanoe, 
Large White Cling, 
Donoliue, 



Old Mixon Cling, 
Horton's Delicious, 
Blonton. 



OF freestones: 



Serrate Early York, 
Druid Hill, 
Van Zandt's Superb, 
Smock Free, 
Fay's Early Ann, 
Montgomery's Late, 
Coolidae's Favorite, 



Barker's Seedling, 
Crawford's Early, 
Camok's Serrate, 
Crawford's Late, 
Lady Perham, 
Late Admirable, 
Baldwin's Late. 



Early Tillotson, 
Fay's Early Ann, 
Columbus June, 



for shipping: 



Early Chelmsford, 
Crawford's Early. 



Heath Cling. 



FOR drying: 



3. FOR MISSISSIPPI. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Carolina Red June . . . .10 

Horse Apple 10 

Summer Red 10 



Caraenser 10 

Shockley 20 

Poole 40 



May 5 

Carolina June 5 

John Hunt 5 

Horse Apple 5 

Summer Red 5 



BEST TWELVE. 

Camenser 5 

Sweet Russet 5 

Colley 10 

Cooner 10 

Shockley lo 



Covington 5 



Poole 



260 



FOR MISSISSIPPI. 



BEST TWENTY. 



May 2 

Carolina June 4 

Red Astrachan 2 

Sweet Bough 2 

John Hunt 4 

Horse Apple 3 

Summer Red 3 

Covington 4 

Summer Pearmain .... 4 

Julian 4 



Wonder 4 

Camenser 6 

Sweet Russet 4 

Fall Pippin 4 

Buff 5 

Carter 5 

Colley 5 

Cooner " 5 

Poole 20 

Shockley 10 



BEST VARIETIES FOE, ONE THOUSAND TREES 

May 50 

Carolina June 50 

John Hunt 50 

Covington 50 

Summer Red 50 

Buff 25 



Carter 50 

Colley 25 

Cooner 50 

Shockley 100 

Poole 500 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. 



Madeleine, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Dearborn's Seedling, 



Beurre Diel, 
Bartlett, 
Winter Nelis. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD; 



Bloodgood, 

Seckel, 

White Doyenne, 



Rostiezer, 

Tyson, 

Doyenne d'Alencon. 



FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 

Madeleine 5 

Doyenne d'Ete 5 

Beurre Giffard 5 

Bloodgood 5 

Dearborn's Seedhng .... 5 

Julienne 5 

Golden Beurre 5 

Bartlett 5 



White Doyenne 

Seckel 

Belle Lucrative 
Beurre d'Anjou 
Doyenne d'Alencon 
Beurre Diel . . . 
Winter Nehs . . 



. 5 
. 5 
. 5 
. 5 
. 20 
. 10 
. 10 



FOR MISSISSIPPI AND KENTUCKY. 



261 



FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 



Madeleine 100 

Doyenne d'Ete 50 

Beurre Giffard 100 

Bloodgood 25 

Dearborn's Seedling ... 25 

English Jargonelle .... 25 

Eostiezer 25 

Tyson 25 

Washington 25 

Golden Beurre 25 

Bartlett 100 



Flemish Beauty 50 

Seckel 25 

White Doyenne 25 

Belle Lucrative 25 

Beurre Diel 100 

Doyenne d'Alencon .... 50 

Winter Nelis 100 

Beurre d'Anjou 25 

Kirtland's Beurre .... 25 

Julienne 50 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Beurre Giffard, 
Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Tyson, 



Beurre Diel, 
Rostiezer, 
Easter Beurre. 



Seckel, 

Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Glout Morceau, 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 

Bartlett, 

Belle Lucrative, 

White Doyenne 



BEST VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Tillotson 20 

Coolidge's Favorite . . . .10 

Crawford's Early 10 

George IV 5 

Eoyal George 5 

Grosse Mignonne 4 

Skinner's Superb 4 

Lovejoy Cling 4 

De Soto CHng 4 



Van Zandt's Superb . • . . 4 

Lagrange 4 

Columbia 2 

Ray 4 

Bermuda Cling 4 

Heath 4 

Hubbard Cling 4 

Burford's October Cling . . 4 

Baldwin's Late 4 



lY. THE WESTERN STATES. 



1. FOR IvENTUCKY. 

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 

Early Harvest 5 Small Romanite 10 



Maiden Blush 5 

Rambo 10 



Wine Sap 30 

Rawle's Janet 40 



262 



FOR KENTUCKY. 



BEST TWELVE. 



Early Harvest 

Maiden Blush 

Carolina Ked June . . . 
American Summer Pqarmain 

Kambo .^ 

Pennsylvania Red Streak . 



Yellow Bellefleur 4 

Milan 15 

Wine Sap 15 

New York Pippin . . . .15 

Small Romanite 10 

Rawle's Janet 15 



BEST TWENTT. 



White Juneating . 
Early Harvest . . 
Carolina Red June 
Black's Annette 
Fenley . . . . 



... 5 

... 3 

... 2 

... 3 

American Summer Pearmain . 3 

Maiden Blush 5 

Fall Queen 3 

Rambo 5 

Pennsylvania Red Streak . . 3 



Y^ellow Bellefleur 3 

Milan 2 

New York Pippin 10 

Wine Sap 10 

Red Winter Sweet .... 5 

Pryor's Red 2 

Newtown Pippin 5 

Rawle's Janet 20 

Small Romanite 5 

Carolina 4 



BEST FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES, 



Early Harvest 100 

Carolina Red June . . . .100 

Maiden Blush 50 

Red Astrachan 50 

Fenley 50 

Fall Pippin 50 



Pennsylvania Red Streak 

Wine Sap 

New York Pippin . . 
Rawle's Janet .... 
Carolina 



50 
100 
150 
200 
100 



Madeleine, 

Bloodgood, 

Tyson, 

Bartlett, 

Seckel, 



BEST VARIETIES OV PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. 

Buffum, 



Belle Lucrative, 
White Doyenne, 
Flemish Beauty. 



BEST VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Belle Lucrative, 
White Doyenne, 



Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Tyson, 

Seckel. 



FOR KENTUCKY AND NORTHERN OHIO. 



263 



BEST VAKIETIE8 OF TEACHES. 



Early Tillotson, 
Crawford's Early, 
Old Mixon, 
Crawford's Late, 
Grand Admirable, 
Large White Heath, 
Hill's Superb Jersey, 
Leopold, 

Early Red Rareripe, 
Royal George, 
Malta, 



New York CHng, 
Van Zandt's Superb, 
Catharine, 
Columbia, 
Freestone Heath, 
Smock's Late, 
Druid Hill, 
Tippecanoe, 
George IV., 
Hobbs' Seedling. 



2. FOR NORTHERN OHIO. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Yellow Harvest 10 

Garden Royal 5 

Belmont 25 



R. I. Greening 25 

Baldwin 25 

Rambo 10 



BEST TWELVE. 



Garden Royal 3 

Belmont 15 

Baldwin 17 

Red Canada 10 

Myers' Nonpareil 5 



Jersey Sweet 3 Wine Sap 10 



Early Harvest 5 

R. I. Greening 15 

Rambo 10 

Red Astrachan 4 

Sweet Bousfh 3 



BEST TWENTY. 



Garden Royal 2 

Belmont 10 

Baldwin 10 

Red Canada' 5 

Myers' Nonpareil 4 

Jersey Sweet 3 

Fall Pippin 3 

Westfield Seeknofurther . . 5 

Coggswell 5 

Paradise Winter Sweet ... 3 



Esopus Spitzenberg .... 5 

Early Harvest 3 

R. I. Greening 10 

Rambo 10 

Red Astrachan 3 

Sweet Bough 2 

Wine Sap 5 

American Summer Pearmain . 2 

Swaar 5 

Lady Apple 5 



264 



FOR NORTHERN OHIO. 



rOR THE MARKET. 



Letofsky 5 

Red Astrachan 5 

Early Harvest 5 

Duchesse of Aldenburgli ... 5 

Myers' Nonpareil 5 



Maiden Blush 5 

Baldwin 20 

R. I. Greening 20 

Rambo 20 

Wine Sap 10 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. 



Zoar Beauty, 

Bartlett, 

Kirtland, 



Beurre Bose, 
Flemish Beauty, 
Winter Nelis. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADV. 



Beurre d'Anjou, 
Washington, 
Stevens' Genesee, 



Ananas d'Ete, 
Seckel, 
Nouveau Poiteau. 



BEST TAVELVE VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Beurre Giffard, 

White Doyenne, 

Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Urbaniste, 

Jalousie de Fontenay Yandee, 

Kirtland, 



Beurre d'Anjou, 
Stevens' Genesee, 
Nouveau Poiteau. 
Zoar Beauty, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Bon Chretien Fondante. 



FOR THE MARKET. 



Louise bonne de Jersey, 
Bartlett, 



Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Beurre d'Anjou 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OF PEACHES. 



Early York, 
Coolidge's Favorite, 
Sturtevant, 
Grosse Mignonne, 
Large Early York, 
Old Mixon Free, 



Old Mixon Cling, 
Ward's Late Free, 
Yellow Rareripe, 
Hyslop's Cling, 
Crawford's Early, 
Crawford's Late. 



FOR NORTHERN AND CENTRAL OHIO. 



2G5 



BEST FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES, AND THE SAME PROPORTION FOR ONE THOUSAND. 



Hale's Early 20 

Crawford's Early 20 

Crawford's Late 20 



Yellow Rareripe 20 

Ward's Late Free 10 

Hyslop's Cling 10 



3. FOR CENTRAL OHIO. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 

Benoni 10 

Maiden Blush 10 

Belmont . . • 10 



Rambo 25 

Smith's Cider 20 

White Pippin 25 



Early Harvest 2 

Benoni 6 

Maiden Blush 6 

Ohio Nonpareil 6 

Rambo 10 

Talman's Sweet 6 



BEST TWELVE. 

Fallawater 10 

Rome Beauty 10 

Smith's Cider 12 

Newtown Spitzenberg ... 8 

Baldwin 12 

White Pippin 12 



Early Harvest 2 

Benoni 3 

Early Strawberry 3 

Red Astrachan 3 

Golden Sweet 2 

Maiden Blush 4 

Fall Pippin 2 

OJiio Nonpareil 4 

Belmont 4 

Rambo 4 



BEST TWENTY. 

Talman's Sweet 3 

Peck's Pleasant 3 

Rome Beauty 10 

Fallawater 10 

Smith's Cider 10 

Newtown Spitzenberg ... 3 

Baldwin 6 

Yellow Bellefleur 6 

White Pippin 10 

Wine Sap 8 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK. 



Madeleine, 
Bartlett, 
Flemish Beauty, 



White Doyenne, 

Seckel, 

Lawrence. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 



Bloodgood, 
Belle Lucrative, 
Buffum, 



Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Kirtland, 

Doyenne d'Alencon. 



23 



266 



FOR CENTRAL AND SOUTHERN OHIO. 



FOR MAPvKET. 



Madeleine, 
Doyenne d'Ete, 
Bloodgood, 
Bartlett, 



Flemish Beauty, 
Louise bonne de Jersey 
White Doyenne, 
Seckel. 



Doyenne d'Ete, 
Belle Lucrative, 
White Doyenne, 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 

Louise bonne de Jersey, 
Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Doyenne d'Alencon. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD : 



Bartlett, 

B-ostiezer, 

Kirtland, 



Buffum, 

Beurre Superfin, 
Beurre d'Anjou. 



BEST TWELVE VARIETIES OF PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 

Old Mixon Free 10 

Smock's Free 8 

Crawford's Late 12 

Old Mixon Cling 12 

Lemon Cling 3 

Ward's Late Free 3 



Hale's Early 10 

Early York 8 

Coolidge's Favorite .... 8 

Yellow Alberge 8 

Large Early York .... 8 
Crawford's Early 12 



4. FOR SOUTHERN OHIO. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Harvest 5 

Benoni 5 

Fall Pippin 15 



Yellow Bellefleur 25 

Jonathan 25 

Cannon Pearmain .... 25 



BEST TWELVE. 



Early Harvest 5 

Red Astrachan 5 

Benoni 5 

Fall Wine 5 

Ashmore 5 

Maiden Blush 5 



Rambo 5 

Yellow Bellefleur 10 

Broad well 10 

Jonathan 15 

Rawle's Janet 15 

Cannon Pearmain 15 



rOR SOUTHERN" OHIO. 



267 



BEST TWENTY. 



Early Harvest 3 

Red Astrachan 3 

Benoni 3 

Ashmore 4 

Fall Pippin 5 

Maiden Blush 5 

Fall Wine 3 

Yellow Bellefleur 8 

Ortlcy 4 

Fall Queen 5 



American Golden E,usset . . 3 

English Golden Kusset ... 5 

Pomme Gris 5 

Broadwell 5 

White AVinter Pearmaln . . 5 

Wine Sap 10 

Pawl's Janet 8 

Newtown Pippin 8 

Cannon Pearmain 8 



Early Catharine, 
Bloodgood Julienne 
Bartlett, 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEAKS ON PEAR STOCK. 

Seckel, 

Glout Morceau, 

Passe Colmar. 



Early Butler, 
Golden Beurre, 
Flemish Beauty, 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD : 

Onondaga, 
Beurre Diel, 
Dix. 



Doyenne d'Ete 

Bloodgood, 

Tyson, 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEARS ON QUINCE STOCK. 

Seckel, 

Louise bonne de Jersey, 

Vicar of Winkfield. 



FOR BEST TWELVE ADD: 



Poire des Nonnes, 

Onondaga, 

Buflfum, 



Lawrence, 
Napoleon, 
Soldat Laboreur. 



Large Early York 
George lY., 
Crawford's Early, 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEACHES. 

Old Mixon Free, 
Podman's Red, 
Heath Clinir. 



POR BEST TWELVE ADD: 



CooHdge's Favorite, 
Serrate Early York, 
Columbia, 



Ward's Late Free, 
Grande Admirable, 
Heath Free. 



268 



FOR ILLINOIS AND MICHIGAN. 



5. FOR ILLINOIS. 

BEST SIX VARIETIES OP APPLES EOK ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Eed June (summer) . . . .10 
Summer Pennock (summer) . 10 
Snow (fall) 15 



Domine (winter) 20 

Wagner (winter) 20 

Willow Twig (winter) ... 25 



BEST TWELVE. 



Red June (summer) . . . 
Sops of Wine (summer) . . 
Summer Pennock (summer) 
Tompkins (autumn) . . . 
Snow (autumn) .... 
Cloth of Gold (autumn) . . 



Domine (winter) . . . 
Wagner (winter) . . . 
Willow Twig (winter) . 
White Bellefleur (winter) 
Yellow Belleileur (winter) 
New York Pippin (winter) 



15 

15 

15 

5 

5 

5 



BEST TWENTY. 



Ked June (summer) .... 
Sops of Wine (summer) . . 
Summer Pennock (summer) . 
Ked Astrachan (summer) . . 
Cooper's Early White (summer) 
Leicester Sweeting (summer) . 
Tompkins (autumn) .... 

Snow (autumn) 5 

Fall Wine (autumn) .... 2 
Hawley (autumn) 3 



Sweet Wine (autumn) 
Cloth of Gold (autumn) 

Domine (winter) 10 

AVagner (winter) 10 

Willow Twig (winter) ... 10 
White Bellefleur (winter) . . 2 
Yellow Bellefleur (winter) . . 2 
New York Pippin (winter) . 10 
Red Seeknofurther (winter) . 10 
Swaar (winter) 10 



BEST VARIETIES FOR MARKET 

Red June (summer) . . .200 
Summer Pennock (summer) . 100 

Snow (autumn) 50 

Domine (winter) 100 



, FOR ONE THOUSAND TREES. 

Wagner (winter) . . . .150 

Willow Twig (winter) . . .200 

New York Pippin (winter) . 200 



6. FOR MICHIGAN. 

BEST SIX VARIETIES OF APPLES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Early Harvest 5 

Red Astrachan ..*... 5 
Michigan Golden Pippin . .10 



Fall Pippin 20 

R. I. Greening 30 

Red Canada 30 



FOR MICHIGAN. 



;G9 



BEST TWELVE. 



Early Harvest 3 

Red Astrachan 3 

Large Yellow Bough .... 2 

MIcliigan Golden Pippin . . 4 

Gravenstein 4 

Keswick Codlin 4 



Fall Pippin 5 

Yellow Bellefleur 5 

Iv. I. Greening 10 

Eoxbury Russet 20 

Red Canada 30 

Ladies' Sweeting 10 



BEST TWENTY. 



Early Harvest 3 

Red Astrachan 2 

Large Y'ellow Bough .... 2 

Early Joe 2 

American Summer Pearmain . 3 

Gravenstein 3 

Fall Pippin 2 

Pomme de Neige 2 

Vandevere 4 

Hubbardston 5 



Belmont 2 

Yellow Bellefleur 5 

Roxbury Russet 10 

R. L Greening 10 

Esopus Spitzenberg .... 5 

Jonathan 5 

Swaar 3 

Northern Spy 5 

Ladies' Sweeting 7 

Red Canada 20 



BEST FOK ONE THOUSAND TREES WHERE THE MARKET IS NEAR. 



Early Harvest 25 

Red Astrachan 25 

Sweet Bough 25 

Michigan Golden Pippin . . 25 

Gravenstein 50 

Fall Pippin 50 

Talman's Sweet 25 

Ladies' Sweeting 25 



Hubbardston 50 

Vandevere 50 

R. L Greening 100 

Baldwin 50 

Jonathan 50 

Roxbury Russet . . . .150 

Red Canada 300 



BEST WHERE THE MARKET IS REMOTE. 



Fall Pippin 50 

Hubbardston 100 

Vandevere 100 



R. I. Greening 200 

Roxbury Russet 250 

Red Canada 400 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OF PEARS ON PEAR STOCK FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Bloodgood 5 

Bartlett 20 

Belle Lucrative 10 

23* 



Onondaga 15 

White Doyenne . . . • . 25 
Winter Nelis 25 



270 



FOR MICHIGAN. 



BEST TWELVE. 



Madeleine 3 

Bloodgood 3 

Kostiezer 3 

Sterling 5 

Bartlett 10 

Belle Lucrative 5 



Flemish Beauty 6 

Onondaga 10 

White Doyenne 20 

Oswego 5 

Lawrence 15 

Winter Nelis 15 



BEST VAFaETIES ON QUINCE STOCK. 



Belle Lucrative, 
Vicar of Winkfield, 
Louise bonne de Jersey, 
Beurre Diel, 



Duchesse d'Angouleme, 
Glout Morceau, 
Doyenne d'Alencon. 



BEST SIX VARIETIES OP PEACHES FOR ONE HUNDRED TREES. 



Serrate Early York 
Coolidge's Favorite 
Barnard's Seedlinfj 



Early Slocum 10 

Early Crawford 25 

Late Crawford 25 



BEST TWELVE. 



Serrate Early York 
Coolidge's Favorite 
Barnard's Seedling 
Large Early York . 
Jacques Kareripe . 
Poole's Late Yellow 



Early Slocum 10 

White Liiperial 5 

Early Crawford 15 

Late Red Rareripe .... 5 

Old MIxon Free 10 

Crawford's Late 10 



FOR TRANSPORTATION TO NORTHERN MARKETS. 



Barnard's Seedlinf 
White Imperial . 



300 I Crawford's Early 400 

100 Crawford's Late 200 



It is very evident, to one who considers the dif- 
ference in these lists for the various portions of the 
country, that it would be impossible for a nursery- 
man to have them all in his possession. Some 
varieties are confined to very limited districts, and 
the demand for them is not sufficient to warrant his 



STROXG-GROWIXG YARIETIES. 271 

keeping a stock; others are of such poor growth 
from the bud, that it is difficult to procure a good 
tree, and the proportion of them which w^ould be 
salable would be small. Therefore the producer 
is obliged to limit his attention to a fev/ strong- 
growing varieties. When this is the case, the cul- 
tivator should plant these, and graft after one season's 
growth. This will not postpone their bearing, as 
he might expect ; but it is a great question whether 
it is not better to obtain strong trees, and graft upon 
them those which are weaker, than to procure them 
immediatelv from the bud. 



CHAPTER VIII. 

SELECTION, ARRANGEMENT, AND TRANSPLANTATION. 

§ I. SELECTION OF THE TREE : THE APPLE ROOT-GRAFTED TREES 

HEIGHT OP THE TREE KO CRITERION OF ITS VALUE WHERE THEY 

SHOULD LIMB THE PEACH THE VINE THE CURRANT AND GOOSE- 
BERRY — THE STRAWBERRY, RASPBERRY, AND BLACKBERRY. § II. AR- 
RANGEMENT : INTENSIVE PLANTING A GARDEN OF ONE SQUARE ROD 

A GARDEN OF SIXTEEN SQUARE RODS — APPLE ORCHARDS — SQUARE 

PLANTING FOR THE PEAR QUINCUNX DISTANCES, AND NUMBER OF 

TREES UPON AN ACRE. § III. THE TRANSPLANTATION.* SEASON OF — 

CONDITIONS MOST FAVORABLE TO — DEPTH OF — THE DWARF PEAR 

MANNER OF OPERATION THE MOVEMENT OF LARGE TREES BY MA- 
CHINERY. 

§ I. SELECTION OF THE TREE. 

TTEE-E it is generally best to confide in the 
judgment of a trustworthy nurseryman. Above 
all, avoid purchasing cheap trees, which drag out a 
miserable existence for a few years, only in the end 
to waste the capital and to disappoint the reasonable 
expectations of the cultivator who spends time and 
money in the preparation of the soil. Many per- 
sons, on account of the purchase of inferior stock, 
become disgusted with fruit-culture, and conclude 
that it requires more experience than they possess. 
A good tree will always command its full value, 
and those which are sold at a- cheap rate are, para- 



CHEAP PLANTS MOST EXPENSIVE. 273 

doxically, the most expensive. A reliable nursery- 
man has his reputation at stake, and, when it is 
left to his judgment to select, will send to his cus- 
tomers only trees of good quality, and those w^hich 
are properly labelled. But, as all dealers are not 
of this class, it will be well for all to know the 
general points of excellence in a tree. 

For apples we should prefer those of four or five 
years' growth from the bud : they then have uni- 
formly sufficient strength to succeed. It is a great 
trial of patience to find that a few, which are grow- 
ing rapidly, are shading and crowding out their poor 
neighbors. A certain proportion will always be 
feeble and sickly, which results, probably, from the 
seed from which the stock was raised. This is 
not so apparent in infancy as after three or four 
years, as the strong tree gains over the weak a little 
every year. Thus one tree, which at two years 
seems scarcely inferior to another, often at the latter 
age requires a year or two more of nursing before 
planting in the orchard. The profit to the producer 
is, of course, greater to dispose of them while young; 
but that does not subserve the interest of the pur- 
chaser. 

Many apple trees are sold which are grafted at 
the root. These may or may not be valuable, ac- 
cording to the method in which the work has been 
performed. Every seedling plant has a root, or 
descending axis ; and a stem, or ascending axis. 



274 EOOT-GRAFTED TREES. 

Where these meet at the surface of the ground, there 
is a swelling, called a collar, which is perhaps, more 
than any other part, the seat of life. The mainte- 
nance of its proper position is of vital importance. 
Perhaps one-half of the trees which fail, after trans- 
planting, do so because this collar is placed beneath 
the surface ; and this stifles the tree. This swelling 
is only possessed by seedlings, and never by lay- 
ers, or otherwise artificially-produced plants. Some 
years ago it was the custom to cut the long tap- 
root of a yearling into three or four parts, into each 
of which a scion was inserted. In this way several 
plants were produced from one. That upon the 
upper cut, or collar, would, of course, form trees 
equally as good as those which were budded. The 
next piece, on account of its strength, might make 
a good tree ; yet it would be of more dwarfish habit 
than the former. Those grafted upon the remaining 
portions of root would be nearly, if not altogether 
worthless, sometimes never coming into fruit. They 
may grow in the nursery lines until large enough 
to sell, but, compared with a budded tree, or one 
grafted properly, they are only calculated to disap- 
point and discourage the beginner. 

But why are such practices encouraged by pur- 
chasers % In the endeavor to buy at a cheap rate 
the cultivator has driven nurserymen to this only 
remaining expedient for obtaining remuneration for 
his labor. In this manner he can raise several 



ROOT-GRAFTED TREES. 275 

plants, where by the old and better method he could 
produce but one ; and the labor can be performed 
at a season of leisure. Only the experienced few 
will purchase the first class of trees, and pay a cor- 
responding price for them. We believe, with the 
lamented William Reid, of New Jersey, that many 
apple trees which have been sold, especially in the 
Western country, will not be likely to attain a 
bearing condition. Such is the demand for cheap 
apple trees, that the very best nurserymen are 
obliged to keep those of this class. 

If such trees are examined critically, it will be 
discovered that their roots are a mass of fibres, like 
a head of hair, and possessing very few, if any, large 
roots. After the most careful transplanting in 
excellent soil, or in that which was barren, it is 
impossible to induce them to throw strong roots. 
Under such circumstances they will be sensitive to 
the least wind, and there is nothing to prevent their 
being blown to the ground. The tree is merely a 
cutting, and the little piece of root into which it is 
grafted serves to keep the scion alive only until it 
is established. 

While the use of the third or fourth cut as a 
stock for grafting should be discountenanced, that 
of the second may be of use in some cases. As its 
efi'ect is to dwarf the tree, it may bring some of the 
late-bearing varieties to an earlier maturity. Such 
has been the repeated efi"ect upon the Northern 



276 KOOT-GRAFTED TREES. 

Spy. Still, even such are better confined to a small 
garden ; and, if I judge not too harshly, they will 
often want propping to guard them against the 
wind. When the root is used entire, the tree is as 
valuable in every respect as one which has been 
budded. 

Some naturalists have argued that all the plants 
of any variety are parts of one individual, which is 
the original seedling ; that every layer, cutting, and 
offshoot which have been rooted and dismembered, 
are not separate individuals, but only parts of the 
parent. Others, among whom have been some of 
the most renowned, state, with equal persistence, 
that each is a perfect individual in itself. But do 
not the latter overlook the fact that these layers and 
parts were made independent by artificial means'? 
that they must be noticed scientifically, as they 
would exist in a natural state ? An individual plant 
must be one which has passed through all the 
periods of growth, from infancy upwards ; originally, 
directly from a seed ; having, or having had, cotyle- 
dons, a plumule, an ascending axis, a descending 
one, and a collar. Artificial plants have none of 
these but the ascending axis. 

The fact that some diseases will attack a certain 
variety at once, or nearly so, — some locations being 
so favorable as to ward it oif for a time, — show^s that 
varieties grow old and die, as they would have done 



SEEDLINGS AND BUDDED TREES. 277 

if confined to the original plant. The supporters 
of the opposite theory argue against this, by saying 
that the family becomes diseased and extinct through 
the influence of something analogous to scrofula in 
the human family. But, can this be the case, when 
their ofl"spring from seed are often perfectly free 
from infection '? Thus some pears, which were once 
very fair and fine in growth, become uniformly 
cankered and cracked, and finally disappear, while 
plants from their seed are entirely free from both. 

An eminent gentleman of this country has said 
that " the plant which springs from a bud is as 
really a new plant as that which springs from a 
seed." No seedling is exactly similar to its parent. 
It difi"ers either in the flavor, form, or size of its 
fruit, or in the habit of its growth. There is some 
point by which we can instantly determine that it 
is an entirely difl'erent individual. Is such the case 
with the plant derived from the bud ? Must they 
not be the same, when their fruit and habit are 
exactly alike '? Can it be said to be a distinct in- 
dividual 1 The same author adds, that " if the 
feebleness of a tree be general, its functions languid, 
its secretions thin, then a bud or graft will be feeble ; 
and so will be its seed." Although the former 
is generally true, are not the seeds of such trees 
often unusually plump and fine] and is not this 
feebleness often caused by expenditure of strength 

in forming them ? But, while the seed does often 
24 



278 YEARLING PEAR TREES. 

escape the diseases of its parent, and accommodate 
itself to tlie influences which affect it in its new- 
position, — as a tender variety produces from seed 
one perfectly hardy, — does a plant from a bud ever 
escape, unless through those artificial means which 
only influence it for the time 1 It retains the dis- 
eases (perhaps undeveloped and latent), the form, 
flavor, and texture of fruit, and the habit of growth 
of the original seedling ; and would always have 
been a part of it, had it not been for art. No bud 
of the Bartlett pear, wherever or however inserted, 
ever produced anything but a Bartlett ; and no seed 
of the Bartlett ever originated a tree which tvas the 
same as that variety. 

Some authors have recommended planting pear 
trees of one year old, because then they might be 
formed as desired. While this may be best in the 
grounds of those gentlemen who employ profes- 
sional gardeners, and have walls to which they wish 
to adapt an espalier, ^ yet, in our country, such 
persons of skill are rare, and our standard method 
of pruning does not render it important. Trees of 
two years old, also, are much better in the nursery 
lines ; but, after three years, or, still better, if trans- 
planted the second, and set in the orchard the fourth, 
they will have a strength of constitution which, 
compared with a tree of one or two years from the 

1 See chapter on Praning. 



HEIGHT FOR THE LIMBS. 279 

bud, would be like that of a man in his prime to a 
tender infant. They will become less liable to 
injury in winter, as their wood is more firm, or to 
remain stunted for several seasons, as the former are 
likely to do. 

The height from the ground at which the lower 
limbs of the standard pear should grow is about 
two and one-half to three feet, and with varieties of 
weeping habit, perhaps a little more. The old 
method was to train them much lower ; but it was 
found that these limbs trailed upon the ground, 
and rendered their fruit almost worthless. Most 
inexperienced persons ask for trees limbed so high 
that a horse can cultivate under them. The admit- 
tance of such cultivation into an orchard of pear 
trees, planted as near together as we should advise, 
is of very doubtful propriety. Even if the trees 
were sufficiently far apart for such an operation, 
the danger of scalding the trunk from the sun 
should not be risked for a matter of so little con- 
venience. 

The height is too often considered as a crite- 
rion of the value ; so that, for a certain class of 
purchasers, the strength must be sacrificed to satisfy 
them : but the true value of a tree should be esti- 
mated by the size of the butt, or trunk, at the ground. 
To produce a stocky plant, the top is kept pruned 
back, which makes the tree very sturdy ; while, for 



280 



VALUE OF TRANSPLANTING. 



a tall tree, the top is allowed to run, and its growth 
is obtained in nearly half the time, but results in a 
slender, withy whipstick. 

The value of transplanting the tree before setting 
in the orchard, is, that the roots are brouglit into a 
limit where they can nearly all be retained. 

This diagram ex- 
hibits the roots of a 
tree as they lie in the 
ground, and the circle 
the proportion of roots 
which would be re- 
tained by the tree as 
it is usually dug. (a) 
represents a root with 
the little spongioles 
through which the 
tree feeds. These are very soft and tender, and, in 
transplanting, it is almost impossible to retain them 
alive. But this is of no great importance; for if there 
is a good supply of the small roots, of the size of 
a pipe-stem, or of even half that, they will readily 
supply themselves with feeders. But it will be seen 
that most of these small roots are outside of the 
circle, and are, consequently, lost. To be sure, the 
large roots will supply themselves also, but not so 
readily as the former ; and therefore this transplant- 
ing more properly takes place in the nursery, where 




ROOTS OF TRANSPLANTED TREES. 



281 




the trees will have better care than they generally 
receive in open culture. 

The result of transplanting 
will be seen to be, in the third 
or fourth year, or the first or 
second after the operation, that 
in this circle a large number 
of these small roots have been 
formed, and consequently the 
strength of the tree greatly in- 
creased after moving. If the 
tree was to be carried but a little distance, the 
spongioles might be kept fresh by wrapping a 
moist cloth about them ; but even then they would 
be likely to be bruised in sifting the soil into the 
hole, however carefully performed. 

The limbs of the dwarf pear, or that upon the 
quince stock, are much stifFer than those of the 
standard, and can be allowed to grow much nearer 
to the ground. The nearer the limbs are to the 
earth, the less height shall we allow to the tree, and 
therefore the wind will have less effect upon it, 
and will blow off its fruit much less. Several years 
ago the pear was budded on the quince, some inches 
above the surface of the ground. When the present 
practice was introduced of placing this junction 
entirely under ground (the reason for which will 
be explained in the directions for planting), the 
point of imion w^as so high that it was impossible 
24* 



282 PLANTING DWARF PEAR TREES. 

to fix it in its proper place without plunging the 
roots into the cold soil below. Now, all skilful 
nurserymen bud their trees as low as possible ; but, 
should they be of the former description, they 
ought to be placed at the proper depth, even at 
the risk of losing the lower roots, as the quince 
furnishes itself easily from any part of its stem. 

Peach trees are of very rapid growth, and bear 
transplantation easily ; so that a tree of one year is 
preferred, and a crop will be realized quite as soon 
as from an older one. The limbs upon the yearling 
peach are of no importance, as they are cut off at 
planting. 

In general, grape vines of two or three years are 
better than those younger. The most common 
method of propagating them is by layers. If they 
have not been cut and transplanted, those of two 
years are no better than those of one ; yet, if they 
have been, they are much more valuable ; although 
those of one year may be used for vineyard planting 
where the land has been skilfully prepared. A year- 
ling vine, grown in a pot, has a great quantity of 
very fine roots, which it is difficult to preserve fresh 
during the winter. If not in dry, barren soil, the 
fibres decay, and disease seems to extend to the 
larger roots, so that it is doubtful whether it is of 
much more value than a cutting. Therefore, if such 
vines are used, they should not be planted in the 
autumn, nor until the time arrives in the spring 



AGE OF THE PORTABLE VINES. 283 

when they will immediately grow\ Much the best 
way is to trim off these fibres entirely ; and if they 
are diseased, the roots should be cut to the sound 
part. After it has been transplanted another year 
in the nursery it is in better condition for general 
planting. 

A great mistake is made by the purchase of large 
and old vines. The root is, like the top, a great 
ranger, and it can hardly be imagined what an 
exceeding small proportion of its roots can be 
obtained by the most careful attention in trans- 
planting. Besides, it is a useless expenditure, for 
such will seldom acquire a healthy habit, and will 
certainly never succeed as well as young vines. 
Those who buy are often disappointed, upon re- 
ceiving their vines, to find that the top has been 
nearly all cut off, and only a foot or two remains. 
Unlike a tree, if it possesses three or four sound 
eyes, the rest is useless. Even a single eye is all 
that is absolutely requisite. 

Currant and (joosehernj bushes should be of the 
old fashioned form, or bush-shape, and not tree- 
formed. When there is but one stem, a single 
attack of the borer may destroy the whole top, 
while if there are several, such an occurrence would 
only give the remaining parts more strength. 

Plants of the straivherry should be runners ; those 
of the blachherry and raspberry suckers of the pre- 
vious summer. 



284 A GARDEN OF ONE SQUARE ROD. 



§ II. METHODS OF ARRANGEMENT. 

If one has a limited tract of land, it is a question 
which naturally suggests itself, how can he plant it 
to the best advantage 1 This inquiry is pertinent 
where large tracts are possessed. In this country, 
land has been of so little value that our cultivation 
has been too extensive. The liability has been to 
spread over a large area, cultivate superficially, and 
obtain only that from two or three acres which 
should have been produced from one. The aim 
should be more intensive, — to place upon one acre 
the number of trees often planted upon several, and 
to give it as much care and as good treatment as the 
larger tract would have received. This will un- 
doubtedly be productive of better returns. The 
farmer who possesses one or two hundred acres of 
land, and designs becoming a fruit-grower, will do 
well to retain but ten or twenty, and invest the 
amount received from the sale of the remainder in 
stock to be placed upon what he retains, and in 
bringing the same to the highest possible state of 
tillage. If we mistake not, his profits will be very 
much increased. 

There is hardly any one M'ho does not possess 
land enough, accessible to the sun, to raise some 
fruit. Supposing he has but one rod square, let us 
see how he may use it for a fruit-garden, and what 



A GARDEN OF ONE SQUARE ROD. 



^85 



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results it will be possible for him to obtain. This 
diagram represents such a plat. 

(a) denotes the spot 
where four grape vine^ 
are placed, which are 
eight feet apart, and 
against the north and 
west wall or fence, 
where they receive the 
sun from the opposite 
direction. 

(&) represents cur- 
rant bushes, planted about three feet distant from 
one another, on the south and east. 

(c) is a line of strawberries, one foot apart, ex- 
tending entirely around the apparent interior of the 
border, but really, however, over the whole rod, 
thus affording a fine field for the roots of the vines 
to roam. Its superficial boundary, as shown in the 
plan, is three feet from the outside. 

(d) represents pots of eighteen inches in diameter, 
each containing a peach tree, which is dwarfed by 
pruning ; the pot being plunged to the rim in the 
earth of the border, to prevent too rapid evaporation 
of moisture. 

Now, what may we expect, as the practical result 
from such an orchard, if kept in good heart by an- 
nual manuring and a judicious use of the knife % 
The four grape vines should bear, at least, fifteen 



286 



A GARDEN OF SIXTEEN SQUARE RODS. 



pounds each, making sixty pounds. The ten cur- 
rant bushes would yield one-half a bushel. The 
strawberry bed should produce, at least, thirty boxes 
of fruit. And the six peach trees, two dozen each. 
Let us extend the tract to sixteen square rods. 



N 



f 
9 



- - a - 



O e e 
• • • 



r 



I - - - 



- I 



A border is constructed all around the plat, of 
eleven feet in width, but a walk is laid over the 
interior three feet, which is represented in the dia- 
gram by (c). In this border grape vines are planted, 
eight feet apart, all around the plat. These are 
distinguished by {a). On the north and west should 
be a fence nearly tight, but not wholly so, as it is 
desirable that the air should pass through it. The 
vines are to be trained on stakes, or on a trellis, at 
least a foot in front of it. On the south and east 
should be, if any, only a light slat or wire fence, 
through which the sun may shine. 



PRODUCT OF SIXTEEN SQUARE RODS. 287 

(b) upon the plan denotes a line of strawberries, 
one foot distant from each other, extending around 
the outside and inside borders on both sides of the 
walk. 

(d) is a line of peaches, reaching across the inside 
border, eight feet apart, pruned into a dwarfish 
habit. 

(e) represents four lines of dwarf pears, of the 
same distance from each other as the peaches, and 
containing a selection of varieties which shall afford 
a supply for the whole season. 

(f) is a line of summer-bearing raspberries, four 
feet distant, three plants being set in a hill. 

((j) is a row of currants. 

(A) a line of fall-bearing raspberries, planted 
like(/). 

(i) is a row of gooseberries. 

By this plan we have, upon one-tenth of an acre, 
thirty-two grape vines, four hundred strawberry 
plants, five peach trees, sixteen pear trees, eight 
hills of summer raspberries, the same number for 
the autumn, eight currant bushes, and an equal 
number of gooseberry plants. This is a sample of 
the intensive cultivation which should be more ex- 
tensively practised. One often hears it said that 
such cultivation becomes a garden, but is not 
adapted to the orchard. But this should be a 
garden ; and, until it is so considered and treated, it 
will not yield all the profit of which it is capable. 



288 INTENSIVE ARRANGEMENT. 

The Clapp Brothers, of Dorchester, Mass., have 
well illustrated the profit of intensive cultivation 
in their orchard of thirteen acres. The general 
plan is somewhat like the following. 

(a) represents the 



&© @ Q Q o — 16 — J» 

c - - - 



apple trees. 

(b) peaches plant- 
ed between them ; but 
these become so ten- 
der in this locality 
that many of them have been killed. 

(c) denotes lines of currants, three feet distant 
each way. 

This plan has an advantage in the fact that the 
whole ground must be kept in cultivation, which is 
very necessary to the best results ; and the annual 
manuring which the currants receive also enriches 
the trees, and that at the extremities of their roots, 
where the spongioles are placed ; and it is therefore 
more available than immediately about the trunk, 
as generally applied, where there are no roots to 
make use of it. Dwarf pears may be used instead 
of peaches, where the latter are not hardy ; and they 
will yield many fine crops before the apples require 
the room. An excellent plan, practised by many 
apple-orchardists, is to plant four times as many 
trees upon the land as they design to have remain 
there. If it is proposed that in the end they be 
forty feet distant each way, another line would be 



QUINCUNX PLANTING. 



289 



planted between them in both dh'ections. By this 
method, when the trees commence to bear fruit, and 
during the first fifteen years, they receive four times 
the quantity which they would have done in the 
old method, which often amounts to a full crop 
from an established orchard. When they begin to 
interlock, the superfluous trees are cut out. 

The old method of planting the pear intensively 
may be seen in the figure below. 

(a) denotes the standard 
pears, sixteen to twenty feet 
distant. 

(h) the dwarfs, 
(c) small fruits; such as 
currants, raspberries,or straw- 
berries. 

The beauty of the orchard, as well as its utility, 
is a point to be considered by the cultivator, when 
the latter is not sacrificed to the former, and the 
quincunx is therefore generally preferred. 

(a) (h) and (c) correspond 
to the same numbers in the 
preceding diagram, and (d) 
represents a line of grape 
vines, extending around the 
whole. The manner of lay- 
ing out this plan upon the ground may confuse 
the planter, and we therefore give a more simple 
method. On examination, it will be found that the 
25 




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o'.'x'-'o*- x*» o*. X* .'o 



290 



NUMBER OF TREES PER ACRE. 



distance from one tree or bush to another is just 
four or five feet, according as the standard pears 
were placed sixteen or twenty feet apart. The 
whole is laid off in squares of four or fL\e feet with 
a line, and marked upon the ground by nicking with 
the spade. Stakes are then easily driven down, 
rej)resenting the standard, dwarf or shrub. In this 
way the trees will be set exactly in line, which adds 
greatly to the attractiveness of the whole. 



NUMBEK OP TREES OK PLANTS ON AN ACRE, WHEN PLANTED AT THE FOLLOWING 
DISTANCES APART, IN FEET. 



7 49 

69 

• . • 109 

120 

135 

• 150 

170 

194 

222 

257 

302 

360 

436 

537 

681 

889' 

1210 

1742 

2722 

4840 

10890 

43560 

DISTANCES FOR PLANTING. 

Standard Apples 24 to 30 feet distant each way. 

Standard Pears 16 to 20 " 

Standard Cherries 16 to 20 " 

Standard Plums and Peaches . . 12 to 16 " 
Pyramid Pears on Pear roots . . 10 to 12 " 
Pyramid Pears on Quince roots . . 8 to 10 " 
Currants, Gooseberries, and Raspberries. 3 to 4 " 

Strawberries 2iUo 3 " 

or 1 foot in the row, and the rows 3 feet apart. 



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BEST SEASON FOR PURCHASE. 291 

§111. TRANSPLANTATION. 

When the trees arrive at the orchard they should 
be carefully unpacked, and the moss or other ma- 
terial about the roots removed, as otherwise it may 
promote decay. A deep trench should be dug, in 
dry, gravelly soil, and the roots set in properly to 
a considerable depth, that they may remain fresh. 
If, from any accident, the top has become shrivelled, 
the trees should be buried root and branch until 
they become plump. 

The best time for the purchase of trees, even if 
not to be planted until spring, is undoubtedly the 
autumn. Between the sale in the fall and that in 
the spring, there is no season of growth, and those 
disposed of at the latter time have been left over 
from the former. Therefore the order should be 
given as early as possible in the summer previous, 
if the cultivator designs that the nurseryman shall 
make a wise selection. If these trees are to be 
heeled in until the spring planting, the earth should 
be finely shaken about the roots, that no recesses 
be left for retaining the water or sheltering mice. 
After the earth has been banked up about them to 
a considerable height, it should be stamped hard. 
The trench must be, of course, where no water will 
stand about the trees, and not in the vicinity of 
heaps of weeds, old turf, or any other rubbish from 
which the mice can make a sally. 



292 THE SEASON FOR TRANSPLANTING. 

The best season for transplanting most trees is, 
no doubt, the autumn. The earth is then in good 
condition — dry, friable, and still containing much 
of its summer heat. This latter circumstance is 
of much importance. It encourages the wounded 
parts of the roots to heal over, and to throw out 
numberless rootlets, which fix the tree in the ground, 
and enable it to start quickly and healthfully into 
growth with the first opening of spring. As we 
approach mid-winter, this terrestrial heat diminishes ; 
therefore, the earlier the process can take place the 
better. At the same time, it should not be before 
the tree has shed its leaf; for then the evaporation 
from the top would be more than the shortened 
root could sustain ; it would not find a recompense 
in the absorption at the root, and the top would 
shrivel. This same rule is of application after the 
buds have begun to swell in the spring, except that 
then the vital functions are just commencing, and 
the roots, being thus stimulated, are more liable to 
furnish spongioles, and sustain the draft. 

Altogether, autumn planting is on these accounts 
to be preferred ; yet it is somewhat dependent upon 
the age and style of tree to be set. Those which 
are young and succulent, or those varieties which 
are tender, might be injured by immediate exposure 
from the nursery to the vicissitudes of winter. Such 
should be heeled in, in some sheltered situation, for 
use in the spring. The aspect, too, may be such as 



CONDITIONS FAVORABLE FOR PLANTING. 293 

would forbid the work being performed in the 
autumn. If strong winds prevail, the newly-planted 
tree will be thrown about, loosening the roots in 
the soil, and preventing the formation of rootlets by 
the constant strain which is made upon it in main- 
taining its position. Trees planted at this season 
should always be protected by a mound of earth 
around their base, made hard by the foot or spade ; 
and if a stake is added, it will afford a still better 
support. 

The condition of the soil most favorable to plant- 
ing, is when it is not wet, so as to be clammy or ad- 
hesive, but dry and friable. If the sky should be 
overcast, so much the better, as the roots will not 
be as likely to become dry. Strong wind is very 
unfavorable, as it dries the fibres, and hinders the 
planter from performing his work thoroughly. If 
the soil is wet, it cannot be placed suitably between 
the roots. 

No matter what care the nurseryman may exercise, 
it will be impossible to retain all the roots, as in 
the preceding diagram, as well as in the chapter 
upon fertilization, it is shown to what length they 
grow. When they are to be set, therefore, the ends 
of the roots and all bruised parts should be pared 
with a sharp knife, that the wound may be smooth. 
The cut should, if possible, be made from beneath, 
so that it will rest upon the earth when the tree is 
upright. The benefit of this operation is, that the 
25* 



294 MANNER OF PLANTING. 

fresh wound will send out roots immediately, while, 
if not pared, the ragged pai-ts would decay, which 
would |)revent the production of rootlets, and per- 
haps produce death in the whole root. The hole 
should be dug of sufficient diameter to allow all the 
roots to be spread easily in their natural positions, 
and several inches deeper than was originally re- 
quired by the tree. The fine surface-soil may then 
be placed in the bottom until the hole is of the 
proper depth. If the roots are dry, they may now 
be sprinkled with a rose-pot, that the earth may 
cling to them more compactly. One person should 
hold the tree, while the other carefully places the 
roots, as the earth is finely sjmiiJded in. The person 
spreading these cannot be too particular in their 
arrangement. If possible, the tree should be set, 
at first, about the height at which it is to stand, so 
that it will not require lifting after the setting is 
completed, which disturbs the position of the roots, 
and often breaks their tissue. But it must not be 
left too deep on this account, for the latter evil 
would be greater than the former. 

The tree should be set as deep in the ground 
as it was in the nursery. If the collar is below 
the surface, the tree will never thrive. The pear 
upon the quince is an exception to this rule. The 
quince stock is raised from a layer or cutting, 
and has no collar, and the ease with which it throws 
out roots from any part of its stem permits it to 



DWARF PEARS. 295 



accommodate itself to any dejDth of planting. The 

union of the pear with it is not so perfect as it 

would be with its own species; therefore, if this 

point of junction is above the surface, a great strain 

is brought upon it by the wind, which sometimes 

results in its parting. This, of course, ruins the 

tree. The borer is very fond of the quince, and he 

makes his attacks at the surface of the soil. By 

placing the junction three inches below the level 

of the soil, it is beyond his attack, and the pear 

stock, like a cutting, soon throws out roots, which 

strengthen the hold of the tree at the same time 

that they lengthen its longevity. If the quince 

decays, the pear roots maintain the tree in fruitful- 

ness. 

The question may arise. What is the advantage 
of placing the pear tree upon the quince stock at 
all, if it is to be on its own roots in the end ? The 
union between the two has been said not to be 
perfect, because the pear is naturally a much more 
vigorous grower than the quince. Being united 
with the latter, it must receive nourishment only as 
fast as the quince would give it to its head. By 
this the pear is to a degree stunted or matured, and 
that slow circulation of the sap is induced which is 
promotive of fruitfulness. This may be encouraged 
to an extreme, and the cultivator who argues against 
dwarf pears, and complains of their stunted growth, 
want of productiveness, and yellow leaf, will be able, 



296 AGE OF DWARF PEAR TREES. 

probably, to remember a time, it may be years be- 
fore, when the tree brought on this ill health by 
a too large crop. The addition of the pear roots 
give the tree greater strength, and consequently 
increased power of production. The period of 
barrenness before maturity in the pear on free stock 
is cut short by the quince, and the life extended 
nearly as long as the standard, if cropped judiciously. 
The life of pears upon the quince independently, 
has, I believe, been understated. Where blight or 
other diseases have attacked them, or exhaustion 
has followed overbearing, their life will not probably 
exceed fifteen or twenty years at the most ; but an 
observation of those from thirty to forty years of 
age, in the gardens of my esteemed partner, Hon. 
Marshall P. Wilder, which are still bearing crops, 
and the large number, of fifteen to twenty years of 
age, apparently in full health and productiveness, 
must lead one to extend this period. 

Some one may ask why these trees are not rooted 
from the pear. Formerly the importance of such 
deep planting of the dwarf was not rightly esti- 
mated, and the necessity of it has become impressed 
by the results of the experience of the cultivator, 
although it was taught theoretically more than two 
centuries ago. 

If manure has been applied broadcast, according 
to the preceding directions, there will be little need 
of using it at the time of planting; but if not, a 



PLANTING STRAWBERRIES. 297 

good qiiantiiy of old rotten manure should be placed 
at each hole, and finely composted with the loam to 
be sifted in at the setting. If the dung used is not 
well rotted, or at least a year old, it must not on any 
account be placed with the loam, as it will greatly 
injure the roots of the tree, but must be used on 
the surface as mulching, which will be explained 
hereafter. When the tree is set, the ground should 
be made as firm as possible by treading. 

The fibrous roots of a grape vine should be spread 
out carefully ; and it is well if the cane is laid 
down carefully. Each eye, in this case, will throw 
out a bunch of roots, and strengthen the vine. 

Strawberries, of old, were planted in beds, and 
were permitted to remain for several seasons ; but 
the care required to keep out the weeds was very 
great, and a remunerative crop was seldom realized 
after the second year. Among the best growers, 
strawberries are now planted in rows two and a half 
to three feet in width, and about one foot distant in 
the rows. The ground is prepared as directed, and 
the runners of the preceding year, not plants which 
have borne fruit, are dibbled out like cabbage plants 
in cloudy weather in the spring. During the whole 
of this season they can be kept clean with a horse- 
cultivator and a hand-hoe. After producing one 
crop the second year from planting, they are per- 
mitted to make runners for a new patch, and then 
ploughed in, to make way for the plants the next 



298 SEXES OF STRAWBERRIES. 

spring. It scarcely ever proves to be good practice 
to let them remain another summer. By some they 
are grown in hills, and not allowed to extend ; but 
the former method is productive of greater results. 

A variety of strawberry may produce blossoms, 
however, which are destitute of stamens, or the 
male element ; or they may be so sessile as not to 
perform their office of throwing the yellow pollen 
upon the stigma of the pistil, so as to impregnate 
it, and the consequence will be utter or partial 
barrenness. Such plants are called pistilate, or 
female. Others there are where the pistil is imper- 
fect, while the stamens are fully developed. These 
are called staminate. When the former are planted, 
every fourth or fifth line should be of the latter 
class, when the whole will be productive. But 
they must be of the same species ; a haubois must 
be fertilized with one of the same. There are some 
varieties which have both sexes well developed. 
These are called hermaphrodite ; but they are not 
generally as great bearers as the pistilate sorts. 

The movement of large trees is accomplished with 
great labor. Mr. Stewart McGlashen, of Great 
Britain, invented, a few years since, a w^onderful 
machine for digging and removing those of almost 
any size. An account w^as published of the first 
experiment in the journals of the day. We do not 
know whether it has been brought much into use, 
but give a description of it that it may perhaps lead 



DIGGING TREES BY MACHINERY. 299 

to something else, which shall be of general utility. 
This machine was aj)plied to a tree fifty feet in 
height, and of more than five feet in circumference 
at the trunk. 

" Tlie first process of Mr. McGlashen, is to lay 
down a frame of T-iron — in this case, ten feet 
square. He then takes cutters, made of malleable 
iron, one foot broad, and three feet deep, or, in- 
cluding the head and neck, four and one-half feet. 
These cutters are driven, by a wooden mallet, into 
the soil to the depth of three feet all around, and 
being inserted sloping inwards, they give to the 
enclosed mass the form of a square blunted wedge. 
A rod of iron is then laid along the top of the four 
rows of cutters, and extensive rods going across the 
frame force the heads of the cutters apart as far as 
possible, and, consequently, cause the point to con- 
verge at the bottom. ' A clasp or gland is then put 
around the trunk of the tree, with a mat under it 
to preserve the bark. Two parallel beams are then 
laid across the frame, and fastened to it with chains. 
The above constitutes the frame to be raised. The 
means of elevating it is a carriage (which also serves 
the purpose of transportation), consisting of two 
strong common carts, one at each end, with bolsters 
raised above the axletree of both, and on which 
bolsters rest two massive parallel beams secured to 
them with strong bolts. The height of the beams 
from the ground is about six feet. They, of course, 



300 DIGGING TREES BY MACHINERY. 

enclose the tree. The process of lifting is ex- 
ceedingly simple, the whole being accomplished by 
the power of the screw. The screws are four in 
number, and so arranged as to make them lift 
equally. They are made fast to the beams of the 
frame, and are worked by men standing on planks 
across the beams of the carriage. The frame and 
enclosed mass are slowly raised, and the tree, with 
gentle oscillation, moves erectly upwards. The tree 
may, it is evident, be raised without the use of any 
ropes, — the solid mass of earth effectually balancing 
the trunk and branches, — but they were used on 
this occasion as an extra precaution. After about 
twenty minutes' working of the screws, the tree was 
completely raised from the pit, the operation having 
been effected in an easy and gradual manner, and 
amidst tributes of admiration from all around. It 
was not the intention to remove the tree exper- 
imented upon; but the means of removal being 
exhibited and explained, all seemed satisfied with 
the feasibility of the apparatus provided for the 
purpose. A strong case was shown for the enclos- 
ure of the ball of earth when the tree is to be 
removed to any distance. In moving, the tree still 
maintains its erect position. The propelling power, 
when horses cannot be used, is by a winch in front 
of the foremost cart, and block and tackle; but 
when the way is clear and the road good, horses 
will do the work safely, and more expeditiously. 



DIGGING TREES BY MACHINERY. 301 

The tree is lowered into the pit prepared for it, on 
the same principle. 

" It is calculated that, in this instance, the weight 
lifted was thirteen or fourteen tons ; but the inventor 
and patentee states that, by an enlargement of the 
apparatus, he could lift almost any tree." 
26 



CHAPTER IX. 

PRUNING AND TRAINING. 

THE AMPUTATION OP THE LIMBS OF A TREE BASED UPON SCIENTIFIC 
PRINCIPLES — FACTS NECESSARY TO BE KEPT IN MIND : IMPORTANCE 
OP A SHARP KNIPE — THE METHOD OP MAKING THE CUT — SEVERE 
PRUNING PRODUCTIVE OF VIGOR AND STERILITY — THE REMOVAL OF 
A PART OF THE "WOOD OF A WEAK PLANT STRENGTHENS THE RE- 
MAINDER — IMPORTANCE OP SUNSHINE TO ALL PARTS OP THE TREE 

CIRCULATION OF AIR — DISTINGUISHING THE PECULIARITIES OP THE 
VARIETY — THE PREVENTION AND CURE OF DISEASE — THE SEASON : 
SPRING AND SUMMER — PRUNING AFTER TRANSPLANTING — TRAINING 

THE PEACH AND NECTARINE: SEYMOUR's SYSTEM — OBLIQUE ROD 

OBLIQUE DOUBLE ROD — DOUBLE OBLIQUE ROD — STANDARD — HOR- 
IZONTAL TRELLIS-TRAINING — THE APRICOT — THE PEAR STANDARD, 

QUENOUILLE, WINEGLASS, ETC. THE CHERRY THE VINE THE SYS- 
TEM OF THE IONIAN ISLANDS SIMPLE CANE — SIMPLE THOMERY, 

PLAN PRACTISED IN OHIO — THE CURRANT — THE GOOSEBERRY — THE 
RASPBERRY — THE BLACKBERRY — THE STRAWBERRY — ROOT-PRUNING. 

^HE amputation of the limbs of a tree is based 
upon scientific principles ; and when it is done 
indiscriminately, or at variance with these, disease 
or death may be the consequence. The ^ild tree 
is naturally of strong growth, at the expense of 
fruitfulness. The designs of pruning are to check 
undue luxuriance, and induce the immediate pro- 
duction of fruit ; to reduce the size of the tree to 
such an extent that it is manageable with ease ; to 



METHOD OF USING THE KNIFE. 



303 



enable it to sustain itself from injury while bearing 
heavy crops ; and to adapt it to the peculiarities of 
climate, soil, or position. 

The facts which are to be kept in mind as neces- 
sary to good pruning are — 

First, the importance of a sharp hiife^ with which 
to perform the operation. The wood of all plants 
is composed of cells and of woody fibre. If a keen 
instrument separate these, the neighboring parts 
are not materially disturbed, and their action w^ill 
be continued, and the wound healed ; but if the 
knife is dull it tears these one from another, and 
disarranges the tissue surrounding, so that, unless 
the plant is very vigorous, the outer parts decay, and 
the wound becomes an unsightly scar. 

Second, the method of making the cut} So many 
instances occur of ugly knots disfiguring the tree 
from an utter disregard of this, that the following 
plates are inserted. 




1 The remarks under this head were suggested by an article in the Gardeners* 
Chronicle of 1847, and the plates arc thence derived. 



304 THE EFFECT OF SEVERE PRUNING. 

(a) represents the proper cut, at an angle of 
about forty-five degrees, with the bud at the back. 
As the bud grows, the bark is thrown over the 
wound, and it becomes scarcely distinguishable. 

(&) is a cut in which the bud is left so much ex- 
posed that drying winds or accident may destroy 
it. In either case the next one below will push, 
and the intermediate space become an ugly knot. 

(c) represents the wound usually made in pruning 
by beginners or women, resulting from a dull knife 
or want of strength to make a firm stroke. The 
disadvantages are evident, as the surface to be healed 
is more than double that of (a), (d) {e) (/) are cuts 
made at hap-hazard ; in which the bud is not liable 
to take so straight a direction; and an unsightly 
joint is left above it. 

Third, severe pruning produces vigor, hut sterilitij. 
There is a certain balance which is to be maintained 
between the roots and the branches of a tree ; and 
if this is disturbed, it seeks to restore the equilib- 
rium before it will produce fruit. Therefore, if the 
branches are continually cut while the roots remain 
the same, the whole force of the tree will be spent 
to accomplish this by increased vigor. If a tree 
already possesses a quantity of fruit-spurs, and the 
knife be used severely, this force may transform 
them into wood-buds, and the tree be filled with 
spray-wood in consequence. 

Fourth, the removal of a part of the wood, when the 



IMPORTANCE OF SUNSHINE. 305 

plant is wedk^ strengthens that which remains. This 
was made so patent under the last head, that it 
requires no additional remark. 

Fifth, it is important that the sunshine reach every 
part of the tree. If a close, thick head is formed, the 
leaves are crowded together, and none of them act 
as freely as they might. Consequently, they are 
weak, light-colored, sickly, and produce debility in 
the whole tree. But if a part of the limbs is 
removed, or never allowed to form, so that each 
leaf can expand independently in the sunshine, the 
foliage becomes active and healthy. Although the 
number of leaves is diminished, yet their superficial 
area is increased, and the strength and longevity of 
the tree augmented. 

The pear tree naturally grows to a considerable 
height, having a bare stem of several feet, and a 
spreading top, upon the exterior of which the fruit 
is produced, when it has access to the sunshine. 
One of the objects of pruning is to dispose of this 
bare stem, and keep the tree in such limits as will 
be within reach of the operator, and so low as to be 
protected from winds which would otherwise throw 
off the fruit. But as the tendency of the plant is 
always upward, it will soon go beyond the boundary 
unless we prune it. If this be merely the cutting 
back of those shoots which exceed the limit pre- 
scribed^ the tree will soon become filled with brush, 
to the exclusion of sunshine and of worthy fruit. 
26* 



306 NECESSITY FOR A CIRCULATION OF AIR. 

Some plan must be pursued from infancy which 
shall provide against these evils ; this will be de- 
tailed hereafter. 

Sixth, the importance of a circulatmi of air through 
the head of the tree is closely associated with that of 
light. As the latter is composed of rays of different 
colors, acting chemically upon vegetation, some 
absorbing one ray and some another, so the rust- 
ling of every leaf is necessary to secure to it those 
atmospheric substances which aid it in the elabora- 
tion of its sap. To produce this the same means 
are employed as with the last, — a loose, open head. 

Seventh, the formation of an equal system of 
branches. All trees throw most of their vigor into 
a strong central shoot. This is while they are 
young ; with increased age it is generally lost in 
the mass of vertical branches which form the head. 
The horizontal limbs, which were produced at the 
outset, receive so small a share of sap, that they 
become insignificant. By pruning, this energy and 
vigor should be equally distributed. The tendency 
upward is so great that in those trees which have 
been trained horizontally for a long time, a single 
bud, if allowed to escape the knife of the gardener, 
would soon turn the balance of strength in its favor. 
All systems of pruning contain this principle to a 
greater or less extent. 

To accomplish it one must be aware of the nature 
of the buds upon a shoot, and the difference in 



THE PECULIARITIES OF VARIETIES. 307 

result to be obtained from cutting to a bud near or 
at a distance from the base of a shoot. On account 
of this tendency upwards, if unmolested, the eyes 
near the terminus of the last season's growth would 
burst and grow, while those at the base would 
remain dormant. But if the shoot is cut off to 
these latter, they are stimulated and produce stronger 
groAvths than those at the terminus would have 
done. The fruit-bearing buds are scarcely ever those 
at the base, but are generally about two-thirds of 
the length of the shoot from it, although sometimes 
terminal. Therefore, these dormant buds at the 
base produce shoots which will not fruit so quickly, 
but continue to elongate. Horizontal limbs grow 
slowly ; and it is of importance to secure buds from 
the base of the shoot to form them. If the limbs 
are of equal strength, and light and air are admitted 
freely, they will be clothed with fruit-spurs to their 
very base, where they are capable of sustaining ten 
times as much weight as at the terminus, and where 
the risk of loss by winds is very small. 

Eighth, the importance of distingiiisking the ijeculi' 
arities of the variety to he operated upon. Some sorts 
are very vigorous in their character ; others weak ; 
and some of decumbent or weeping habit. In prun- 
ing them the plan should be conformed to these 
peculiarities rather than to a uniform system. 

Ninth, the iwevention and cure of disease. If the 
subject has become exhausted by overbearing, and 



308 THE WINTER PRUNING. 

throws out nothing but sickly foliage, the removal 
of a part of the top, with judicious manuring, 
strengthens the remaining parts. Canker and other 
diseases are often formed by too close pruning when 
the roots are very strong. Withholding the knife 
entirely will help to stay it, although a more effect- 
ual cure is wrought by root-pruning. 

The season of pruning. This depends upon the 
end to be attained. As a general rule these seasons 
are two, — ivinter and summer. 

If the winter pruning is done in the autumn, as 
soon as the growth is ripe there is danger from a 
warm season following that the tree would push 
forth a soft groAvth, on account of the stimulus given 
by severe cutting. When done in early winter, the 
end of the shoot which is cut does not heal, because 
the energies of the tree are dormant, and it becomes 
an unsightly black knot, requiring a pruning in the 
spring to remove it. If the invigoration of the tree 
is the object, this should be performed in the spring 
before the buds have started, and after all danger 
from severe frost is past. If it is desired to check 
undue luxuriance, it should be done after the buds 
have well started, or are even in leaf The plum is 
very stout in its growth, and the more it is cut, the 
more luxuriant does it become. When it is neces- 
sary to use the knife, it should be when the buds 
are swollen, or the tree is coming into leaf. As it 



THE SUMMER PRUNING. 309 

has then expended considerable strength in bursting 
these forth, and is deprived of some foliage, it 
weakens the remaining parts, and induces that con- 
dition which is favorable to fruitfulness. If it had 
been performed earlier, all the force of spring life, 
which would have been distributed through all 
these buds, is concentrated in those remaining, and 
the result would have been still greater vigor and 
less fruitfulness. 

No precise time can be assigned for summer prun- 
ing. It must extend through a great part of the 
season of growth. It should be used in reference 
to the winter pruning. All gourmands, or watery 
shoots, which are taking a wrong direction, should 
be pinched before they have become so strong as to 
draw necessary nourishment from other parts. All 
stone-fruits are liable to exude gum from their 
wounds after severe pruning, so that summer jorun- 
ing with them should be only the prevention of the 
formation of shoots by disbudding them before 
actually grown. If some should escape attention, 
it will be better to permit them to remain until the 
winter pruning, when the sap is moving sluggishly, 
and the wound will heal readily. With those fruits 
which bear upon the growth of the last season, as 
the peach, the laterals, which are designed for pro- 
duction, should not be disbudded or shortened to 
the proper length until the winter pruning, else 
they would burst all the eyes upon them, and fill 



310- PRUNING AFTER TRANSPLANTING. 

the tree with soft shoots, which would be likely to 
injure it, by inducing late growth, which would be 
hazardous during the winter. 

The season for pruning the vine will be considered 
particularly hereafter. 

Pruning after transplanting. In transplanting, the 
majority of the roots will under any circumstances 
be lost. We have seen before that the tree while 
growing maintains a certain equilibrium between 
the roots and the top, and that the growth of the 
latter results from that of the former. Therefore, 
after transplanting we must so prune the top as to 
secure the balance, which had been broken in the 
removal of the tree. They should therefore be cut 
back very severely, when they will develop a few 
healthy leaves which will aid the tree in establish- 
ing itself, much more than the weak foliage which 
would be thrown out if they were not pruned. 
Trees planted in the autumn need not be cut as 
closely as those set in the spring, because they will 
be in a condition to throw out new roots imme- 
diately to support a larger top. 

This figure represents a peach tree 
at planting, and the transverse lines 
indicate where it should be cut. The 
main stock is left at not more than 
eighteen inches in height, and all the 
limbs are trimmed to an inch or two from the stem. 




SEYMOUR'S SYSTEM. 



311 



Training the peach and nectarine. Many methods 
of espalier training are in use in Europe, but among 
them that recommended by Mr. Seymour seems to 
be, perhaps, particularly desirable. 




-^^^^^^^^^ 



The arms which form it are, of course, permanent, 
and are kept in position by tying to the trellis, 
at proper distance from each other. The laterals, 
represented above, start from these. It is intended 
that each shall bear a single fruit, which is allowed 
to grow about midway from its base to terminus. 

[a) represents where the fruit is 
to be borne, (h) the lateral for the 
next year. The buds which push 
are also pinched after making three 
or four leaves, with the exception 
of that at the terminus, which is 
allowed to grow a little longer, and the lower 
bud, which extends to form a lateral for the succeed- 
ing year. At the winter pruning the old lateral is 
cut as close to the main limb as possible without 
injuring the new shoot. 




312 



OBLIQUE ROD TRAINING. 



Oblique rod training. This system has recently 
been introduced into our country as applied to the 
pear. In Europe it was found to be a simple and 
expeditious method of growing the peach, and with- 
out doubt might be applied to other fruits. It is 
claimed that it is superior to the other styles of 
trellis or wall-training, on account of the ease with 
which the rod can be replaced. It has been prac- 
tised in the vicinity of Paris since about 1840. 




The trellis should be about ten feet high, and the 
trees trained at an angle of nearly forty-five degrees. 
After planting, the rod is cut to about eighteen 



inches in height. 



The buds bursting must be 



pinched and treated like those upon the arms of an 
espalier, in order that they may produce fruit, with 
the exception of that at the terminus, which is 
allowed to grow. If the shoot be strong, it may be 
retained for three feet, and so carried up by degrees 
until it reaches the proper height. On the left it 
will be seen that there is a vacancy to be filled. 



OBLIQUE DOUBLE ROD TRAINING. 



313 



This is done by bending down the growth at the 
end of the first year, and permitting the uprights to 
proceed from it. On the right, after the rod has 
become formed the lower bud is allowed to burst, 
and throw up the remaining shoot. 

Oblique double ivd training. This is practised in 




some parts of France, and is somewhat similar to 
the simple rod- training. The trees are four feet 
and four inches apart. A single limb is first grown, 
and when it is strong enough, is bent to the angle 
(a) (b), and the lowest bud at the point where it 
bends is allowed to make another arm, which is 
afterwards placed as in (c) (d). All these inclined 
methods of training the branches have for their 
object the improvement of the fruit in quality and 
quantity ; the bend causes a stagnant flow of sap, 
which is favorable to that object. 

Double oblique rod training. This differs from the 

simple method only in the fact that the branches 

are placed at one foot apart instead of three, and 

that it is composed of a single tree. Great care 

27 



314 DOUBLE OBLIQUE ROD TRAINING. 

should be observed that one side does not become 
stronger than the other. 




A style of trainhig practised by M. Lepere, near 
Paris, is given on page 315 as figured in the Gar- 
deners' Chronicle for 1857, page 233. 

All these styles, it will be perceived, are designed 
for the trellis or wall, because, in the countries 
where they originated the sun is not as powerful 
as in the United States, and by means of these helps 
they receive an increased amount of heat by radia- 
tion. This is not necessary here, and therefore the 
standard is the more favorite form of growing all 
fruits. The peach is not so short-lived a tree, when 
properly cared for, as some would have us believe ; 
but, with the neglect which it too often receives, it 
soon falls a prey to disease. 

Standard training. By reference to the first part 
of this chapter, under the head of " Pruning after 
transplanting," it will be found that it was recom- 
mended to cut down the yearling tree to a few 
inches. This is to encourage the branches to start 



ALPHABETICAL TRAINING. 



315 




31 G STANDARD TRAINING. 

near the ground. The majority of neglected trees 
are broken down during the production of their 
fruit, by its weight on the end of very long limbs. 





(a) represents the peach tree at the end of the 
first year, the arms having been formed, which show 
the skeleton of the tree. These are cut back at 
the winter pruning to one or two feet, according 
to their strength, and laterals are allowed to form 
and bear fruit at every bud, except that at the ter- 
minus, which is to grow. After two or three years 
the tree presents the appearance of (b), and is to be 
pruned so as to keep it within its prescribed limits, 
which should be less than ten feet in height. 

But in many of our northern districts the peach 
is injured seriously by the vicissitudes of climate. 
In such positions it is evident that the standard 
tree would not succeed, nor the espalier unless cov- 
ered in winter, which its size and form preclude. 
The fact, which has been repeatedly observed, that 
limbs near the ground fruit when others do not, 
even when there is no snow of consequence to cover 
them, has suggested the following diagram. 

Figure 1 represents the tree after the growth of 



HORIZONTAL TRAINING. 



317 



the first year ; it having been cut down at planting 
to one foot. The second year the limbs are drawn 




down horizontally and tied; the branches having 
the appearance of a wheel laid upon its side, which, 
w^hen clothed with spurs, and seen from the top, is 



like figure h. 

But, in certain sections, even this is attended 
vrith uncertainty, and still more precaution is ne- 
cessary. In such cases, the cultivator should resort 
to the inclined trellis. Posts about one foot in 
height are set in the ground 
for the front of the trellis, and 
those for the back are two 
feet. Rails are then laid from 
post to post, and slatting across 
them. The tree having been 
planted before the trellis, is 
cut to about a foot in height, 
and at the end of the season 
the arms are laid in their proper position upon the 
slats, the after pruning being the same as that of 
27* 




Gardeners' Chronicle of 1852. 



318 PRUNING THE APRICOT. 

an espalier. That they may be protected from the 
wmter's sun, which is the cause of their injury, 
straw, seaweed, or some other light material should 
be shaken over them in so small a quantity as not 
to afford shelter to mice ; or a second trellis may 
be constructed over the first which shall be covered 
with such materials, or with loose boards. 

The Apricot. This is trained by the espalier or 
standard methods, in the same forms as those ap- 
plied to the peach and nectarine. The standard is 
always to be preferred where it is hardy. The 
remarks of Mr. Loudon, in his " Encyclopedia of 
Gardening," upon the pruning of the apricot, are 
given at length. 

" The winter pruning should either be performed 
at the fall of the leaf, or at mild intervals from that 
time to the beginning of March " (in northern lat- 
itudes just before the swelling of the bud). " If it 
is deferred until the buds begin to swell, the prom- 
ising shoots can be better distinguished. This 
pruning comprehends a general regulation both of 
the last year's shoots and of the older branches. 
The apricot bears upon the wood of the previous 
year, and upon spurs arising from that which is 
older. 

" A general supply of the most regularly-placed 
young shoots, must be everywhere retained for 
successional bearers the ensuing year. Cut out 



PRUNING THE PEAR. 319 

some of tlie most naked parts of the last two years' 
bearers, and old branches not furnished with a com- 
petent supply of young wood or with fruit-spurs ; 
cut, either to their origin, or to some well-directed 
lateral, as most expedient to make room for training, 
a new supply of the young bearers retained; and 
cut away all decayed wood, or old stumps. Gen- 
erally observe in this pruning to retain one leading 
shoot at the end of each branch ; either a naturally 
placed terminal, or, where a vacancy is to be fur- 
nished, one formed into a proper leader by cutting 
to it. Let the shoots retained for bearers be mod- 
erately shortened ; strong shoots being reduced the 
least — one-fourth or less of their length ; from 
those Avhich are weak take away one-third, and 
sometimes half This will conduce to the produc- 
tion of a competency of lateral shoots the ensuing 
summer, from the lower and middle placed eyes. 
As small fruit-spurs, an inch or two long, often 
appear on some of the branches of two or three 
years, these spurs should generally be retained for 
bearing, and thick clusters of spurs, which are apt 
to be formed upon aged trees, should be thinned." 

The Pear. This fruit does not, like the preced- 
ing, bear upon the wood of the previous season, but 
on permanent spurs ; and the method of treating 
them is important. The accompanying figure from 
the Gardeners' Chronicle, represents " (^) as pro- 



820 



STANDARD TRAINING. 




gressing a blossom bud, while (6, h) are already 

such, known by their 
plumpness, and from 
early spring these buds 
exhibit signs of active 
vegetation ; but in(«) the 
surrounding scales re- 
main undisturbed until 
late. The scar at (c) is 
where a portion of the 
spur which bore fruit 
has been cut back, at the 
winter pruning ; after 
(6,&)have produced, they 
also are cut back to buds likely to form at their 
bases, as did those at that of (c)." Unless this was 
done, decay would commence in the old spur, and 
spread among the tissue of the wood, until the 
whole spur was destroyed. 

The causes which render it necessary to train 
the pear against walls in England, are not of force 
in this country. The summer is of such warmth 
as to perfectly mature the fruit without the aid of 
artificially radiated heat, and the standard is gen- 
erally preferred. 

Standard training. A bud of one year's growth 
will, of course, be a straight shoot, having buds 
from the base to the extremity. As the sap always 
seeks the highest point, those buds which are at 



STANDARD TRAINING. o21 

the terminus will grow most rapidly. If the shoot 
has been strong, this would carry the limbs of the 
tree too high, and leave the stem very slender ; 
therefore it is cut back to the height from which it 
is desired to have the highest limbs start, which 
should be from two and a half to three feet. 





At the close of the second year the young tree 
will present the appearance of figure h. Then 
four shoots have been formed, the central leader 
being the highest. At the next winter's pruning 
the tree is cut at the point indicated by the trans- 
verse lines. The lower branches are left the longest, 
because the force of the sap tends upwards, and 
these will elongate slower. The next summer the 
buds upon these limbs are pinched to three or four 
leaves, except two at the terminus, which are allowed 
to grow. At the end of the third year the tree 
appears as in figure a. The transverse lines show 
when the third winter's pruning is to be performed. 
The same course should be pursued until the tree 
has attained about ten feet, when these terminal 



322 QISENOUILLE TRAINING. 

shoots, which are allowed to grow during the sum- 
mer, to draw up the sap into the fruit-buds below 
them, are cut back to one eye every year. 

It may be suggested, how can such a course be 
pursued with a tree thirty or forty feet in height ? 
The answer is that a good cultivator will not allow 
his trees to attain that height. While summer 
pruning generally holds the vigor of the tree in 
check, yet it is sometimes necessary to resort to 
root-pruning, which will be described in another 
part of this chapter. After the tree has arrived at 
full size, all the pruning which is essential, is, cut- 
ting back the growths upon the end of each limb, 
and trimming the spurs. 

The method of pruning the dwarf pear is the 
same as that upon the free-stock. By proper train- 
ing the latter can be planted as near as dwarfs, and 
will succeed as well as when at a greater distance. 
Quenouille training. This system is founded upon 
the fact that the fruitfulness 
of a tree is augmented by plac- 
ing its limbs horizontally, or 
in a weeping position. They 
are tied to stakes driven in the 
ground, and made to assume 
the form represented in the figure. By the same 
means, the balance can be restored to an espalier, 
when one side has gained an advantage over the 
other, by depressing the thrifty limbs. In this 





WINEGLASS TRAINING. 323 

way refractory trees can be forced to become fruit- 
ful. With these exceptions the style has no prac- 
tical value, as all bearing trees assume this habit, 
more or less, with age. 

Wineglass training. The permanent arms, which 
are five, start from a point about 
eighteen or twenty inches from the 
ground. These are not allowed to 
make any minor branches. The 
shoots, as they make their appear- 
ance, are shortened back to three or 
four leaves, to encourage the forma- 
tion of fruit-buds. The terminal 
eyes are allowed to extend at will, and are cut back 
at the winter pruning to one or two eyes — suffi- 
cient to secure one for a shoot the next summer. 
If the tree is very vigorous, the shoots should not 
be pinched too severely, else it will cause the fruit- 
buds to become transformed into wood-buds, and 
grow; but they are permitted to extend, and are 
then shortened at the winter pruning. It is urged 
in favor of the above, that in violent winds the 
branches have full sweep to swing without interfer- 
ing with each other, and the spring given from so 
long a limb gives so easy a motion as to hold the 
fruit fast, while it combines all the advantages of 
the pyramidal or standard pruning. On the other 
hand, it is contested that the weight of the fruit 
upon the terminus of these limbs, at such a distance 



324 PRUNING THE CHERRY. 

from the fulcrum or base, is often so great as 
severely to strain, if not to break, the branch. This 
argument is easily overthrown on two grounds, and 
it therefore resolves itself into a mere matter of 
taste. 1. Each limb should not possess more than 
from twelve to eighteen pears. 2. If the branches 
should by neglect or bad judgment be allowed to 
produce more, the elasticity of so long a branch is 
so great that the end of the limb could almost 
touch the earth with its weight of fruit without 
injury. The standard is, however, more natural, 
simple, and more beautiful. 

There are some positions where an espalier, or 
wall tree, may be grown where a standard could not, 
and it is therefore proper that we enter more large- 
ly into those plans which are most practised in 
those countries where they are favorites. 

Mr. Loudon, in his valuable Encyclopedia, pub- 
lishes the following forms, which are used in England 
for small trees (see page 325). 

The Cherry. This fruit is so uncertain a crop 
when left to itself, and yet so delicious, that it is 
well to devise some method of pruning which shall, 
if possible, remove the obstacles to its culture. It 
is of very vigorous habit, even upon poor soils, and 
in northern climates does not always ripen its wood 
sufficiently to escape unscathed the vicissitudes of 
the winter. While the tree is forming, the young 



ESPALIER TREES. 



325 




! jiTr||F-^ 





28 



326 PRUNING THE VINE. 

shoots should be directed properly, and the winter 
pruning should not be performed until all danger 
of cold weather is past. When it has attained the 
height which we desire (not more than fifteen feet), 
the pruning should be done in a way to check its 
luxuriance. Root-pruning will accomplish this, 
but a more mild operation may be attempted first, 
and the former used as the next resort. This tree 
pushes its buds with great force in the spring, 
and expends considerable strength in the process. 
Therefore if pruning is done after the buds have 
well swollen, we shall probably arrest its undue 
vigor. The morello varieties bear fruit upon the 
wood of the previous season, and regard should be 
had to a constant supply of young wood, and that 
which has produced should be cut out. 

The Vine. Totally different from that of any of 
the plants to which we have referred is the pruning 
of the vine. It produces its fruit on wood of the 
same season's growth, and its vigor is therefore to 
be encouraged. As the size and quality of the 
bunch and berry are influenced considerably by the 
strength of the cane, it is evident that, for constant 
fruitfulness, a succession of young wood must be 
secured. Almost as many methods of training the 
vine have been recommended as men who grow it, 
each having advantages, yet all being similar in the 
endeavor to keep the trellis covered with bearing wood. 



FAN-TRAINING. 327 

"When the vine is planted, it should be cut down 
so as to leave one eye to grow. Some accident 
might destroy this, however, and two or three should 
therefore be left at the fall pruning, when those 
which are superfluous should be destroyed. The 
first season this bud should throw a straight shoot of 
several feet. During November it should be cut 
back to five eyes ; if it is delayed until spring, the 
wound will bleed, weakening the vine, and causing 
the shoots to start with less vigor. This stump will 
throw five branches, which are spread out on the 
trellis like a fan. At the next fall pruning, these 
arms are shortened, leaving two eyes upon each, 
and the next summer the vine possesses ten arms. 
The vine has now attained it stature. At the next 
fall pruning, beginning at the bottom, the first limb 
is cut within two eyes, so as to secure one, and the 
next to nine, and so on alternating two eyes and 
nine. The next summer, the five arms which have 
nine buds will fruit from each, and the lateral 
should be pinched within tw^o joints of the bunch 
of fruit ; the other ^ve limbs throw five strong 
shoots, for fruiting the following season. At the 
next fall pruning the bearing arm or branch should 
be cut back to grow, while the other is left with nine 
eyes to fruit ; thus each arm fruits on alternate years. 

Sir Humphrey Davy, in his Notes and Observations 
on the Ionian Islands, says that the pruning of the 
vine is such as would be pronounced severe even in 



328 SIMPLE CANE TRAINING. 

the wine regions of France. The value of the pro- 
duce is so small that the cultivator cannot afford to 
use manure, or stakes to support the vines. The 
poorer the soil, the more vigorous do they prune. 
" In the rocky situations of the district of Erisso, 
in Cephalonia, where the vine is planted in the 
crevices of the rocks, only one or two of the last 
year's branches are preserved, and of these the 
greater part is removed, only two or three buds 
being allowed to remain." This practice is proved 
to be beneficial. It is urged that the branches of 
the vine extend further than the roots, and unless 
severe pruning is practised in poor soils the branches 
will exceed in proportion, and the vine become 
weak in consequence. 

Simple cane training. The vine produces fruit 
upon the new wood, and con- 
sequently a succession of it 
must be secured. A very 
simple method is that repre- 
sented in the figure. The 
first year the vine is kept to 
a single cane. At the winter pruning, which takes 
place after the fall of the leaf, and the ripening of 
the wood, the cane is shortened back according to 
the strength of the growth, and the next season the 
terminal bud is allowed to extend, and one of the 
lower buds to start also, to make the cane upon the 
left. As soon as the strength of the vine will per- 




SIMPLE CANE TRAINING. 



329 



}1 



\ 



mit, the cane upon the right is carried up, and the 
vine is ready to produce fruit. This is borne upon 
the laterals which start from the buds on these 
canes, and which are pinched off after forming two 
leaves beyond the bunch of grapes. At the winter 
pruning these laterals are cut back to the lowest 
bud, which is to cast that for the next year. 

Simple Thomery. This, although not so easily 
covered as the preceding, is well 
for cold or extreme latitudes, as it 
is for all others. The permanent 
arms, being so near the surface of 
the ground, are not very liable to 
suffer from extremes. For if the 
temperature becom.es suddenly cold 
after extreme heat, to such a degree 
as would be ruinous to canes higher 
from the ground, yet these receive 
radiation of heat from the earth, 
which enables them to cool off more 
gradually. The first season the 
vine is trained to one cane, and at 
winter pruning is cut back to two 
eyes ; each of these will make a new 
cane, which is cut the next winter 
to about three feet, or rather pruned 
to the same number of sound eyes. 
These canes are bent down, and 
make the permanent arms, from which the canes 

28* 




330 TRELLISES USED ON KELLY'S ISLAND. 

will grow the next summer. These canes are 
then cut back to two eyes, and each eye may be 
allowed to bear one or more bunches of fruit, and 
produce a cane of about three feet in length. Care 
should be taken that the shoots are of equal length, 
as if one gains the ascendancy it will rob the others. 
Systems to he practised where there is no need of 
ivinter protection. The training of vines upon Kelly's 
Island, Ohio, seems to be more or less peculiar 
to the locality, and as few failures have occurred, it 
is well to investigate it. Mr. George C. Hunting- 
ton, one of the vignerons of that island, gives a 
description of the trellises used. They are con- 
structed of posts set in the ground, eighteen feet 
distant in the lines ; on these is stretched No. 9 
annealed iron wire, weighing about one pound per 
rod, and therefore, if the rows are eight feet distant, 
requiring about one thousand pounds for the acre. 
In placing it a cylinder is used of the proper size 
to take a coil of wire. This is set upon a horse, 
like a grindstone, when it uncoils much smoother, 
and with less twist than if laid flat upon the ground. 
It has been found that the strain of the whole trellis 
comes upon the posts standing at each end, where 
the intermediate ones are bored to admit the wire 
through them, but by straining each length as the 
work proceeds, and fastening it with a staple driven 
hard, the strain is more equally distributed. Three 
lines of wire are made to each trellis. The end 



SYSTEMS PRACTISED IN OHIO. 



331 



posts have a brace inside to support them. A better 
and more permanent, although more expensive 
method of sustaining the posts, is to fix a stone 
under ground outside the end-post, with a rod 
reaching from it to the top of the former, which is 
tightened at pleasure by means of a coupling iron. 
Figure (a) represents this, and (b) the old methods. 




Mr. Huntington says that the plan of training is 
one of three canes in the form of a fan. These are 
cut back after bearing, to single eyes, which produce 
others, while the young canes that have been made 
at the same time are retained for fruiting the next 
year. 

Plan 2^t'actised in Ohio. This is thus described by 
Mr. Buchanan, in Elliott's American Fruit Grower's 
Guide. " In the spring " (at planting) " cut the 
young vine down to a single eye at first ; if two are 
left for greater safety, take off one afterwards, drive 
a stake six or seven feet long firmly to each plant. 
Locust or cedar is preferred, but oak or black wal- 
nut, charred at the end, or coated with coal tar, and 
driven into the wood, will, it is said, last nearly as 



832 



PLANS PRACTISED IN OHIO. 



long. Keep the young vine tied neatly to the stake 
with rye or wheat straw ; pick off all suckers, and 
let but one cane grow. 

" The second spring after planting, cut down to 
two or three eyes, and the third to four or five, 
pinching off all laterals, and tying up the vines. 
The third year they will produce a few grapes. 
Train two canes to the stake this year, and take off 
laterals. Pruning the fourth year requires good 
judgment, as the standard stem has to be established. 
Select the best cane of last year, and cut it down to 
six or eight joints, and fasten it to the adjoining 
stake in a horizontal position ; tie to the stake at 
the top, or bend it over in the form of a hook or 
bow, and tie it to its own stake. This is the bearing 
wood. The other cane, cut down to a spur of two 
or three eyes, is to make bearing wood for the next 
season. Give the shoot the first tie to the stake, 




Second year, 
before pruning. 



Third year, 
before pruning. 



Fourth year, 
pruned. 



Fourth year, 
summer training. 



nine inches from the ground, and the second nine 
inches above this. 



RENEWAL SYSTEMS. 3C3 

" In the succeeding, and all subsequent years, cut 
away the old bearing wood, and form the new bow, 
or arch, from the best branch of the new wood of 
the last year, leaving a spur as before to produce 
bearing wood for the coming season, thus keeping 
the old stalk of the vine down to within eighteen to 
twenty inches of the ground. The vine is thus 
within reach and control." 

Some grape-growers prune according to a renewal 
system, in which only two canes are used. Thus 
while the cane at the right is bearing a crop, that 
on the left has been growing to take 
its place the next year ; when the 
former will be cut to one bud, and 
make a new cane for the alternate 
year. Those who practise this urge 
that strong buds are formed, which 
produce the finest fruit, and although this may be, 
and is, true to some extent, yet, as Mr. Charlton 
has said in his work upon the vine, the cutting off 
such a large proportion, and leaving so little per- 
ennial, structural base is of very doubtful economy. 
It must keep the plant in constant excitement, 
which is likely to result in disease and premature 
debility. 

The following is the same principle applied in a 
more complex form. The first year the central 
cane was allowed to grow to half its present height. 
Upon that is produced fruit the second year, while 




334 



RENEWAL SYSTEMS. 




it added as much more to its height, and the cane 
on the left also in the second 
year grew to half its present 
length. The third year the 
vine had the appearance of the 
figure. The top of the central 
cane, and the lower half of the 
left, produce fruit ; and the lat- 
ter adds to its length, while 

that upon the right forms itself, as in the above 

representation, upon which to bear the next season. 
An easier system of renewal is represented by the 

following. Every alter- 
nate bud upon the arm 

makes a cane while the 

other bears grapes. The 

next year the former bear, 

and these are cut back to one eye to push a cane 

for the next season. 

The celebrated Thomery system is thus given. 

A wall is erected about seven feet high, and before 

it a trellis is placed. 

When vines are trained upon poles brought 

together at the top, a hoop should be inserted, to 

give opportunity for a free circulation of air. 



II III 




The Currant This fruit should receive an over- 
sight in the summer to see that no improper or 
unnecessary growths are made which shall interfere 



PRUNING THE CURRANT. 335 

with the limbs that are designed to remain ; and 
also that suckers, which make their appearance, 
may be checked. This latter should not be done 
by simply cutting them off, which would only in- 
duce a more vigorous growth ; but they should be 
twisted off, and then the tissue of the wood will be 
so far destroyed as to prevent its throwing a new 
shoot. The bush should not be restrained to one 
stem, because in the frequent attacks of the borer 
the plant would be entirely destroyed ; but two or 
three stems may be allowed. The currant bears 
fruit on spurs from the old wood, as well as upon 
the new ; therefore if any of the superfluous shoots 
of the last year are cut back, an inch or two should 
be left on which spurs may be produced. All the 
old wood which has become unfruitful should be 
cut out, to make room for some of the young limbs. 
Very many successful growers of this fruit in Eng- 
land have cut back the growth to a few inches, 
when the berries begin to color, and have thought 
that it greatly improved the quality of the fruit ; but 
in this country such treatment would be far from 
judicious, as our sun is so powerful that it would 
cause them to shrivel and dry, as do the common 
Dutch varieties under ordinary treatment. The 
shade afforded by the young shoots is not as injuri- 
ous here as the deprivation would be, as affecting 
the length of the season. 



336 PRUNING THE GOOSEBERRY. 

The Gooseberry. Maher states that if the goose- 
berry bush is crowded with superfluous shoots of 
the present season, they should be thinned so that 
the fruit will not have want of light and air ; but 
this pruning must be moderate. At the winter 
pruning, in early spring, all the unnecessary growths 
can be removed, together with those which bend too 
low and drag upon the earth. The finest specimens 
of this fruit are produced upon the young wood of 
the preceding year. In general the shoots may not 
be pruned at all, except when they extend beyond 
the limits, when they may be cut back to eight or 
ten inches, but not shorter, for it would induce a 
superfluity of wood. The gooseberry bush is seldom 
retained in bearing for many years in the gardens 
of the most successful growers. It bears its best 
fruit during the fourth or fifth year, after which it 
depreciates each season. The gooseberry is the 
pride of some gardeners, and great pains are taken 
to make the bush beautiful as well as productive. 
Those varieties which are naturally upright in their 
growth should be planted at a distance of five 
feet. A central stem is carried up, and from it the 
branches proceed, which are cut back so as to form 
the bush like a pyramid. The limbs are not allowed 
to start within a foot of the ground. When the 
plants have completed their growth, they will be 
about six feet high. The weeping sorts do not 
reach more than half that. 



PRUNING THE RASPBERRY. 337 

Tlie Raspberry. At planting, the cane is cut down 
to six inches, and will throw up shoots which are 
to bear fruit the next year. These are sometimes 
fastened to stakes driven in the ground, or a trellis 
is built on which the canes are laid. The latter is 
not upright, but generally at an angle of about sixty 
degrees. This encourages the buds to burst every 
eye, and to throw the little shoots upon which 
the fruit is produced. Some tie one-half of the tip 
of one plant to that of another, and the remainder 
to that on the opposite side, which answers the 
same purpose. The summer pruning consists in 
cutting out the old canes after they have finished 
fruiting, and the superfluous and weak young shoots. 
This strengthens the buds upon the new canes. By 
a judicious winter pruning the season of bearing 
can be extended through six weeks. 

Dr. Warder, of Ohio, published an excellent 
article upon this subject in the report of the Agri- 
cultural Department. He thought it a great mis- 
take to leave the canes so long as they are generally 
seen. The tendency of the sap is always upwards, 
and therefore the weak buds at the top are those 
which push, producing inferior fruit compared with 
that below, which would have been borne on those 
had they not been smothered. The finest raspber- 
ries are always borne by the laterals which start 
from the strong buds at the base. The black-cap 
varieties should be pruned to three feet at least, and 
29 



338 



PRUNING THE BLACKBERRY. 



our common sorts to twenty or thirty inches, de- 
pending, of course, upon the strength of the shoot. 
As the buds at the top of the cane bear the earliest 
fruit, the season may be extended if some are left 
unpruned, others cut as directed for the main crop, 
and some as low as one foot, for the latest supply. 
During one season the frosts held 
off, and quarts of berries of the 
Belle de Fontenay were gathered on 
the sixth of November, in the vicin- 
ity of Boston. 

The Blackberry. This is such a 
delicious and beautiful fruit for the 
wi dessert that it is surprising it has 
been permitted to be only a nui- 
sance in most gardens. If they are 
pruned properly, they can be as 
easily cultivated as any other fruit, 
and with little care yield wonderful 
returns. When the plants have 
|] been set at regular distances, the 
suckers which are allowed to grow 
should be kept as near as possible 
to these places, and only a sufficient 
number ' grown to replace those 
which are to be cut out after producing a crop. If 
an unnecessary number are allowed to start, they 
draw away the sap, and prevent the production of 




PRUNING THE STRAWBERRY. 



339 



fruit. The berries are borne on the young spurs 
arising from the buds, and, by bending over the canes 
and tying them together, as seen in the figure, all 
the buds will be encouraged to throw these spurs. 

One of the most beautiful as 
well as successful methods of prun- 
ing the blackberry is to pinch out 
the terminal bud when the cane 
has grown about two feet and one 
half in height, when side branches 
will be thrown out, on which the 
fruit will be borne. 

The Strawhern/, In this country 
the cultivation of the strawberry 
is beginning to attract more atten- 
tion than formerly, and various 
plans of training them have been 
proposed, to reduce the necessary 
amount of labor. The old style 
was to grow them in beds, and 
renew them once in a few years; 
but the expense of weeding them 
was so great that it made fearful 
inroads upon the profit. It was 
soon ascertained that it was scarcely profitable to 
allow them to bear more than one crop before re- 
newal, when grown in beds. The runners of the 
year previous are planted in the spring, cultivated 




340 IRRIGATION OF STRAWBERRY PLANTS. 

during the first season with the horse-hoe, and 
ploughed in the next summer, after producing the 
crop and growing enough runners to reset the plat. 
By this method every alternate season is left blank, 
while the plants are becoming established. Some 
plans unite the advantages of constant renewal with 
a yearly crop. After the fruit has become mature, 
the plant commences to make runners ; on each of 
these, three or four plants may be formed. When 
the first has been produced upon the runners, if its 
roots are covered with a little loose earth, and all 
further extension of the runners prevented, the 
plant will very speedily become strong, and, if 
transplanted about the first of August, a crop may 
be obtained the first year, and one season's unprofi- 
table cultivation saved. If they are planted in hills, 

the cultivation can be done 
almost entirely with a horse, 
and the plants can be renewed 
each year, as shown in the 
diagram, and the old plants 
destroyed. 

The strawberry plant is very 
fond of moisture, and irriga- 
tion at the time of the growth 
of the fruit produces an astonishing increase in its 
size. Many methods have been attempted to secure 
this benefit with the least labor. Mr. Loudon gives 
an account of the practice of a gardener in the 




ROOT-PRUNING. 341 

neighborhood of Chatham. The beds were upou 
level ground, each of them bemg about one yard in 
width. Between each of these beds was a trench 
nine inches wide. The 
beds were kept in place 
by three heights of 
brick without mortar, 
leaving the trench two bricks in width at the bottom. 
"When the plants were in fruit, if the ground became 
dry, these trenches were filled with water from a 
pump near at hand. The result was an improve- 
ment in quantity and quality, and the extension of 
the season. 

JRoot-pruning. By cultivation the roots are en- 
couraged to extend, while the top is pruned and 
produces such a disturbance in the flow of sap, 
and the top not being able to dispose of the large 
amount of sap in circulation, that various diseases, 
such as canker, are induced. Tlie addition of fer- 
tility to the soil increases the difficulty, while 
transplanting, which is virtually root-pruning, re- 
stores the equilibrium. Therefore, by this method 
of cutting the roots, undue luxuriance may be 
checked. 

It encourages the formation of fruit-spurs, which 
takes place in unpruned trees after the luxuriance 
of growth has expended itself, and the cool weather 
of the autumn commenced. Root-pruning hastens 
this maturity, and consequently develops these buds 
29* 



342 ROOT-PRUNING. 

more fully. For the same reason it prevents late 
growth, which so often leads to frozen-sap blight. 
Thus it may be said to render the tree more hardy, 
and it is probable that in the more northern parts 
of this country and the Canadas this would insure 
them many fruits which do not now succeed. 

The operation should be performed with some 
regard to the variety of the fruit, and the present 
vigor of the tree. If it is just furnishing itself 
with blossom-buds, one pruning may prove suffi- 
cient, as all that is required is to induce the habit 
of fruitfulness. A tree of great vigor would be 
injured if pruned so severely as the former, and 
must be operated upon gradually, or by cutting 
only a part of the circumference of the ball of roots 
annually. E-oot-pruning, as productive of fertility, 
was originally suggested by the fact that mutilation 
of plants is often followed by prematurity. This 
can be observed upon those trees which have been 
girdled or severely injured in the stem, or whose 
roots have become bared. The practical application 
of this principle in gardening was made about the 
first of the present century, and fruit growers are 
largely indebted to Mr. Thos. Eivers, of Sawbridge- 
worth, England, for his demonstration of its advan- 
tages as applied to the different fruits. He thought 
it particularly adapted to those persons who had 
small tracts of land, and wished to realize the great- 
est returns ; although the practice was by no means 



ROOT-PRUNING. 343 

inexpedient for large orchards. He thus describes 
the method of performing the operation : 

" A trench should be dug around the tree, about 
eighteen inches from its stem, every autumn, just 
after the fruit is gathered, if the soil be sufficiently 
moist; if not, it will be better to wait until the 
autumnal rains have fallen. The roots should be 
carefully examined, and those which are inclined to 
perpendicular growth cut with the spade, which 
must be introduced quite under the tree on all 
sides,! go that no root can possibly escape amputa- 
tion, and all the horizontal roots, except those that 
are very small and fibrous^ shortened with the knife 
to within a circle of eighteen inches from the stem, 
and all brought as near to the surface as possible, 
filling in the trench with compost for the roots to 
rest on. This should be well-rotted dung, and the 
mould from an old hotbed, in equal parts, which will 
answer exceedingly well. It may be found that after 
a few years of root-pruning, the circumferential mass 
of fibres will have become too much matted, and 
that some of the roots are bare of fibres towards 
the stem of the tree ; in such cases, thin out some 
of the roots, shortening them at nine inches or one 
foot from the trunk. This will cause them to give 
out new fibres, so that the entire circle of three feet 
or more around the tree will be full of fibrous roots 

1 This part of the work may be entirely avoided, if the bottom of the hole 
is floored with tile-brick or stones, when the tree is planted. 



344 EOOT-PRUNING. 

near the surface, waiting with open mouths for the 
nourishment annually given to them by surface- 
dressings and liquid manure." 

If a branch be lost from accident or disease, and 
it be necessary to produce another, the 
method adopted by M. Jamin may be use- 
ful. 

(a) represents the position of a dormant 
bud, which will not burst naturally, because 
the force of the sap tends toward the 
highest portions of the tree. A cut is made through 
the bark, across the top and down the sides of the 
bud, which causes it to start and grow. 




CHAPTER X. 

SUMMER CULTIVATION. 

KEMOVAL OF MOSS AND DECAYED BARK — LOOSENING THE SOIL — MULCH- 
ING — THINNING THE FRUIT — RINGING — WATERING, TYING, SUPPORT- 
ING, AND GATHERING THE FRUIT PRESERVATION. 

THHE labors demanded of the fruit-grower during 
the summer are varied, and will be considered 
in the order in which they will necessarily require 
his attention. 

The removal of moss and decayed hark. The pres- 
ence of moss or lichens is not itself injurious to 
trees, except as providing a shelter for insects ; but 
it is generally an index to a bad state of health in 
the tree. They are among the agents which nature 
employs to restore vegetable substances to earth, 
after life has left them. They never attack any part 
of the tree which is still alive, but only those which 
are in a state of decay. A tree which is in full 
vigor, as it grows and its trunk increases in size, 
bursts its old covering, and it peels off. When it is 
persistent it shows that the health of the tree is 
bad, on account of the barrenness of the soil, or, 
more frequently, the want of drainage. 

The evils resulting from such a state, are that the 



346 LOOSENING THE SOIL. 

tree is stifled or hidebound, and that this old bark 
aflbrds shelter for myriads of insects, which ravage 
the crops the next summer. To restore the tree, 
the remedy must be applied to the primary cause, 
in the form of manure to increase the fertility of 
the land, or by draining to regulate its moisture. 
The tree should then be scraped so that the moss 
and old bark shall be entirely removed ; but the 
instrument used for this purpose must not be too 
sharp, else it will mutilate the tree by exposing 
unduly the liber, or live bark. It is very well to 
wash the trunk with a very weak dilution of potash- 
water, to destroy the larvae which may be present. 
A great many orchards are treated so severely in 
removing the old bark as really to wound the tree, 
and the operation is generally rendered fruitless by 
the scrapings being left upon the ground, in which 
case the larvae can crawl upon and attack the trees 
almost as well as if they had never been touched. 
The bark which is scraped ofi" should always be 
gathered up and burned, when the destruction of 
the insects will be certain. 

Loosening the soil. The constant pulverization 
of the surface-soil, particularly by the use of the 
hoe, greatly promotes its fertility. By this means 
it is kept porous, and in a condition to absorb ferti- 
lizing gases, as well as moisture, from the atmos- 
phere. It will readily be seen that deep ploughing 
or spading is injurious. The little fibres which 



SHALLOW CULTIVATIOIT AFTER PLANTING. 347 

produce and sustain fruitfulness are near the sur- 
face ; they are almost mvisible, and drink in the fer- 
tility of every shower, and that of the morning dew. 
The strong roots, which penetrate immediately to 
the subsoil, sustain the vigor of the tree, and it 
is the object of root-pruning, as has been seen, to 
prevent their formation, or to destroy them when in 
existence. Thus by this operation extreme vigor 
is checked, and maturity gained. The same results 
are often obtained by encouraging the roots to come 
to the surface. This does not follow deep cultiva- 
tion, for by it the little root-fibres in the surface- 
soil are destroyed, or prevented from forming. It 
can, therefore, be understood why orchards deeply 
cultivated refuse to bear fruit, and still exhibit a 
luxuriant growth ; they are receiving a constant 
pruning, which is discouraging fruitfulness, and pro- 
moting vigor. A fork, with tines only two or three 
inches in length, or a horse-cultivator, used judi- 
ciously, will answer all the good ends, w^ithout the 
evil results which follow the use of a deeper instru- 
ment. 

The frequency of this operation cannot be gov- 
erned by any fixed rule ; the state of the weather, 
the condition of the soil, and the presence of weeds 
must decide it. The land should not be stirred 
when wet. The object in moving the soil is to so 
increase its porosity, by the separation of each par- 
ticle from its neighbor, that the air may penetrate 



348 MULCHING. 

through to the subsoil, and aid in the decomposition 
and recombination of those substances which fur- 
nish nutriment to vegetable life. If the earth is 
wet when it is worked, it will lie even more close 
than before, and assume that condition which is 
described by the farmers as " baked," and thus the 
very object aimed at be lost. 

Mulching. This consists in covering the earth, 
to the depth of an inch or two, with some porous 
material. It is always, and under almost all cir- 
cumstances, attended with beneficial, and sometimes 
with remarkable, results. It is indispensable to the 
most successful production of fruit. Many of our 
best fruit-growers consider it so necessary that, 
should they be obliged to omit any of the important 
operations of cultivation, this would be among the 
last. It prevents, to a great degree, the cracking 
of fruit, and causes those varieties which are gen- 
erally spotted and defaced, to become clean, and 
covered with a rich bloom. 

The material to be used is not of so much im- 
portance ; yet it is well that it be some substance 
which contains fertility, as thus a double object is 
gained in its application. Stable-manure, tan, saw- 
dust, peat, or anything of this nature, will answer 
the purpose. Such as the second and third should 
not be fresh, for the gases generated might be un- 
favorable, or positively injurious. The time of 
application must be determined by the end which 



BENEFITS OF MULCHING. 349 

it is designed to accomplish. If it is protection 
from vicissitudes of temperature during the winter, 
which is given by the shade, it should be applied 
late in the fall, after the ground has frozen. If 
to prevent the ground from becoming too dry, and 
encouraging the roots to the surface, then in early 
spring. 

The depth of the material should not exceed two 
inches. This maintains a regular degree of mois- 
ture in the soil, and it is thus always in a condition 
to absorb gases from the atmosphere, which is done 
more frequently in moist than in dry earths. The 
experiments of chemists have proved that air, passed 
through a long tube contaming moist earth, loses 
entirely its ammonia. It also keeps the soil at an 
equal temperature, and prevents those sudden in- 
fluxes of sap which cause many species to gum ; 
the roots derive more fertility, both from their near- 
ness to the surface, and on account of its porosity. 
In the autumn it lengthens the season, which the 
tree requires to thoroughly ripen its wood, and to 
perfect its fruit-buds ; which it does when the flow 
of the sap has become sluggish. The soil does not 
lose its warmth so quickly ; but, when it has once 
become frozen, the mulching prevents those thawings 
which stimulate the roots, and which often cause the 
death of the tree. As the sun has not so much 
power upon the soil in the spring, the frost comes 
out slowly, and the buds do not start until all danger 
30 



350 MULCHING THE GOOSEBERRY PLANT. 

is past ; but, when they do vegetate, they progress 
with great rapidity. This is of so great importance 
that the balance of success often turns upon it, and 
yet it is the very operation which is generally most 
neglected. 

The gooseberry is very sensibly affected by changes 
in the amount of aqueous vapor in the atmosphere, 
as well as in temperature, which produce mildew 
upon its fruit. If some material, such as has already 
been named, or charcoal dust, be spread upon the 
ground about the bushes, it will often prevent these 
diseases. The annual application of these substan- 
ces will produce a mould very favorable for the 
perfection of this berry. Tan has a peculiar value, 
as it throws off an effluvia which is destructive to 
insects, or prevents the deposit of their larvae. 

If once commenced, it should be continued. If 
omitted for a season, the tender fibres, which have 
been encouraged to come to the surface, will be 
destroyed by exposure to the parching rays of the 
sun, or by the severe cold of the winter, intermitted 
by thaws. It should be either constant, or neglected 
altogether. When trees have attained sufficient 
size to shade all the ground, it will not be so neces- 
sary, as this answers the same purpose, at least 
during the summer. Its value is very clearly seen 
in the culture of the strawberry. This origmally 
received its name from the fact that straw was placed 
under the vines for the purpose which we have 
stated, and to keep the fruit clean. 



THINNING THE FRUIT. 351 

Thinning fruit. Cultivators often speak of the 
" bearing years " of their trees, or the season when 
they produce a full crop. These fruitless years are 
the results of the exhaustion produced by the crop 
of the year previous ; and the tree or plant has not 
strength enough, after maturing the fruit, to pro- 
duce fruit-buds for the next season. This is par- 
ticularly true with regard to late varieties. In the 
chapter upon pruning, it was stated that the fruit- 
buds were formed during the cool weather of the 
autumn, and this is the very time when the tree is 
taxed, in the producing year, in maturing the fruit. 
Summer varieties feel this strain upon their energies 
at an earlier part of the season, and recuperate 
before the time for the growth of the blossom-buds, 
and the consequence is that such sorts usually bear 
annually. If art can lessen the debility produced 
by the bearing year, and result in a full crop an- 
nually, it will be a triumph ; and yet so it is. 

The flesh of the fruit is formed like any other 
green part of the tree ; its cells are similar, as is 
the duty it is called on to perform in the elaboration 
of the sap. This portion, therefore, which we 
desire for food, is rather a strengthening than a 
weakening ally to the foliage. It is the production 
of offspring, which exhausts the strength of plants 
as well as of animals ; and this reproducing germ 
in fruit is formed in the seed. As soon as the an- 
nual has matured its seed, it droops and dies. It 



352 EXCESSIVE THINNING OF THE FRUIT. 

is evident that the seeds of an inferior specimen 
exhaust the energies of the tree as much as those 
of a superior quality. It is therefore important 
that the plant should be rid of all poor specimens, 
and that the good fruit should be so reduced in 
number that the tree can easily produce its burden 
without losing its vigor. Although the number of 
the fruits will be thus diminished, their measure or 
weight will be increased, their beauty improved, 
and their flavor made more delicious. 

The extent to which this thinning of the fruit 
should be carried has, however, a limit. A single 
fruit could not receive all the size and flavor which 
would have been expended in the production of 
those w^hich were plucked, for it would not furnish 
a suflicient field to satisfy the tree's habit of fruit- 
fulness, and gourmands or supply-shoots would soon 
make their appearance. The proper extent to which 
this operation should be carried will be readily de- 
termined by the good judgment of each cultivator, 
according to the power of his soil, and the thorough- 
ness of his cultivation. 

It is important that the orchardist should know 
which fruit to remove. Some varieties bear in clus- 
ters, and the rule should generally be to take off all 
but one in each of these ; but with regard to this a 
suggestion is necessary. If the pruning has been 
conducted as it should have been, the spurs, and con- 
sequently the fruit, will be distributed over the whole 



RINGING LIMBS FOR LARGE FRUIT. 353 

length of the limb. If this is not so, biit the tips 
of the branches are provided with a large portion 
of the fruit, the thinning should be free upon that 
part, so that the strain upon the limb shall be equal- 
ized. 

Ringing. This process is sometimes resorted to, 
in order to obtain fruit of extraordinary size ; but 
although allowable in certain cases, it cannot be 
recommended for general use. It consists in cutting 
a ring of bark off, of about one-half an inch in 
width, and scraping the alburnum which lies imme- 
diately under it, so as to make an obstruction to the 
backward flow of sap, which is through this liber 
or newly-forming bark. The sap having reached 
the leaves, by means of the w^oody ducts, is elabo- 
rated, and, finding its downward passage checked, 
is precipitated into the fruit which lies above the 
girdle, which is thus greatly increased in size. It 
is better that this operation should be performed 
upon several small shoots, each of which has a fruit 
or two, than upon one which is common to all. 
The limb above this ring is of course destroyed 
after the first year. Some cultivators produce this 
same result by tying a string tightly about the 
limbs. 

Mr. Knight accounts for this phenomenon by the 

hypothesis that the part below, being deprived of 

descending sap, ceases to grow, so that it does not 

impel the descending current with the usual force. 

30* 



354 IRRIGATION OF THE ORCHARD. 

Thus the effect produced is like that of a drought 
which hastens its maturity ; and, consequently, if 
persisted in, it will weaken and eventually destroy 
the plant. 

Watering. Fruit is increased in size, when it is 
growing, by a good supply of water ; and if extra- 
ordinary specimens are desired, it is necessary to 
apply it artificially. The effect of irrigation upon 
the strawberry has been illustrated in the chapter 
upon pruning. It has been stated by some straw- 
berry growers that it is profitable to keep one man 
watering every half-acre while the fruit is green. 
This should be done before it begins to color, for 
this indicates that the saccharine fermentation has 
commenced, after which the berry ceases to grow. 
Irrigation, of course, detains the maturity of the 
fruit, as the time is spent in growing which would 
otherwise be occupied in fermentation, but the berry 
is much larger and finer. In producing specimens 
of other fruits for exhibition, irrigation will increase 
the size very perceptibly. The water is poured by 
means of a little trough scraped with the hoe at 
some distance from the trunk of the tree, so that it 
may reach the fibrous roots through which the tree 
is nourished. If it consists of diluted sewerage 
water, with a small proportion of urine, the effect is 
still more obvious. Mulching answers the same 
purpose, while it has the superiority of keeping the 
supply of moisture constant. 



TYING UP THE FRUITING LIMBS. 355 

Tijbig and staA'ing the limbs. Sometimes the 
branches are so laden with fruit as to bend ahiiost 
to the earth, and to give the cultivator great anxiety 
lest they should break and disfigure his trees. 
Although there is not much to be feared when a 
proper regard has been paid to the rules of pruning, 
which would so distribute and develop the limbs 
that each would be stiff and strong, also to the 
thinning which would regulate the strain, yet it is 
to be expected that some cultivators will neglect 
them. Such will be apt to find their fruit is all 
upon the tips of the branches, while the stronger 
portions, which are best able to bear the strain, are 
entirely free from fruit. This is owing to the amount 
of superfluous wood which was allowed to grow, 
which caused a want of light, and of proper circu- 
lation of the air. Such limbs evidently need sup- 
port. This necessity is not always the result of bad 
cultivation, for trees are often taxed beyond the 
strength of endurance, especially those which have 
brittle wood. Support can be given them either by 
strings fastened to some higher portions of the tree, 
or by the use of stakes fixed in the ground. The 
latter is much the better way. If strings are used, 
they should be of very soft material, and should not 
be fastened tightly about the tree, but abundant 
room should be left for a free circulation of the sap. 
The usual method of support is illustrated in the 
figure : 




356 TYING UP THE LBIBS. 

(a) represents the tree. 

(h) the limb loaded with fruit. 

(c) the point of attachment. 

(d) the stake to support the limb. 

(e) the weight of the fruit. 
This method entirely defeats the 

object in view, and increases the danger of break- 
ing the limb. While the strain was distributed 
through the whole branch before the support was 
used, it is thus concentrated at (c), which becomes 
the fulcrum, while that part of the limb beyond the 
stake acts as the lever. 

The proper plan is the following : 

(a) again represents the tree. 

(b) the limb. 

(c) the point where the strain is 
felt after being equally distributed 
through the whole branch. 

(d) is the stake. 

In the first instance, when sufficient force is ap- 
plied at (e) by the growth of the fruit, the limb 
will break, while in the latter mode of treatment 
the power must be enough to pull asunder the 
very tissue of the wood before any damage can be 
done. 

With some varieties the point of junction between 
the stem of the fruit and the spur is not firm ; and 
when these are cultivated so that they attain a 
much larger size than they would naturally, it is 




TIME OF GATHERING. 357 

very well to aid the stem by tying a string around 
it and then over the limb or the spur. This little 
>york will reward the grower with still larger fruit. 
But what is better, is a bag made of gauze, drawn 
over the specimen and tied to the limb. This will 
not only give it support, but will catch it if broken 
off, defend it from birds, and to a considerable ex- 
tent, too, from mischievous boys, who would seldom 
take off the bags, while others immediately at hand 
remained unprotected. 

Gathering. This is generally esteemed a matter 
of little importance, but it is really one of great 
consequence. If fruit is gathered during a hot day, 
when the leaves have begun to wilt, and rapid 
evaporation is going on both from them and from 
the fruit, the flavor will be less desirable than in 
the morning when it is full of juice, which it has 
absorbed during the cool, moist hours of the night. 
But fruit should never be gathered during rain, or 
when wet, because this extreme is as bad as the 
other, and the fruit will be comparatively flavorless. 
The fact can be easily ascertained by permitting a 
fruit to remain in water for a few hours, and then 
tasting it. If picked in the heat of the day, when 
almost deprived of juice, it will absorb the flavor 
of almost anything near it, provided the atmos- 
phere is moist. On this account fruits from a damp 
room, which is finished with pine, often taste of 
that wood. 



358 THE MANNER OF GATHERING. 

The proper time for gathering a fruit is when the 
saccharine fermentation has begun, and before it 
has become tender to the touch. If the fruit be 
permitted to remain upon the tree until ripe, the 
young cells, which were full of active sap, become 
lined with woody matter, and are farinaceous, or 
mealy, to the taste. If plucked as directed, this 
process of the production of woody tissue is stopped, 
because the supply from the roots is cut off, while 
the fermentation goes on, sugar is elaborated, and 
the flesh becomes tender. 

The manner of gathering should not be by shak- 
ing the tree, and permitting the fruit to fall to the 
ground. In that way the fruit-spurs are broken, 
and the fruit itself is bruised by the limbs and soil, 
and will consequently decay much sooner than if it 
had sustained no injury. By examination of the 
stem of the fruit it will be seen that the point of 
attachment with the spur is clearly defined. It is 
at this place that the separation should be made in 
gathering. The reason that so many orchards bear 
only on alternate years is often owing, not so much 
to their over-bearing as to the careless manner in 
which the fruit was gathered. The spurs are thus 
destroyed, and the energies of the tree are required 
the next year to refurnish itself with them. 

The fruit, after being gathered, should be carefully 
laid in the basket or barrel, and not throivn in, as is 
the custom with many. If it is bruised, the tissue 



THE RIPENING OF FRUIT. 359 

of the cells is broken by the blow, the juice is lib- 
erated and runs about the healthy cells, and soon 
its decomposition takes place, which is speedily 
communicated to the whole. 

Preservation, I'he proper ripening of fruit is 
owing in a considerable degree to the influences to 
which it is exposed after gathering. The fruit is 
still green, and therefore as active as ever in con- 
verting the water contained in its juice into wood, 
and as this is the very end to be avoided, all con- 
ditions, such as light and heat, which stimulate 
vegetative action, should be withdrawn. The shriv- 
elling of fruit is owing to evaporation caused by the 
presence of these and similar agents. 

The fruit should be handled as little as possible, 
as all are covered more or less, according to the 
variety and the soil upon which they were grown, 
with a waxen substance called " bloom," which pre- 
vents, to a great extent, the evaporation of juice. 
Therefore washing, wiping, or handling are injurious, 
because they deprive the fruit of this natural cover- 
ing. 

Several plans of rooms for the preservation of 
fruit have been recommended, and been practised 
upon with more or less success. Among the most 
prominent was that of Mr. Schouler, which was 
thought to be of great promise. The following is a 
description of one built according to his plan : 

The sides of the fruit-room proper are double, 














360 FRUIT-ROOMS. 

and the space between these, about eighteen inches, 

is stuffed with tan, saw- 
dust, and shavings. The 
outer room, which is 
filled with ice, is just 
above the fruit-room 
proper, and at its back. («, a) are ventilators, 
which receive the cold air as it falls from the ice, 
and (b) is another in the door of the room 
which governs the current of air, and therefore the 
melting of the ice. The water is discharged from 
the floor of the apartment into the open air, by 
means of a pipe, which should be provided with a 
faucet, and the w^ater let off at stated times ; other- 
wise a strong current of air would be created, like 
that circulating through the room. The top of the 
fruit-room proper must be strongly built, and cov- 
ered with zinc, to support the immense w^eight and 
prevent leakage. While the structure remains in 
good order, the design seems to be accomplished. 
Summer fruits, such as strawberries, can thus be kept 
for a long time. They have been preserved for a 
month, when fully ripe, but the moisture deprives 
them of their sprightliness, and it is necessary to eat 
them immediately upon their exposure to the air. 
The fault of the invention is that the moisture 
and a constant circulation of air encourages fungi, 
which destroy the life of the timbers which settle 
under the weight of the superincumbent ice, and 



FRUIT-ROOMS. oGl 

leakage commences. All manner of expedients have 
been tried, and failed to prevent this. It is unnec- 
essary that the fruit-room be such an elaborate 
structure, or that so large an expense be annually 
incurred in procuring the supply of ice, and in re- 
pairs. The humblest can have one, containing all 
the principles of the very best, which will be within 
the reach of all, pecuniarily. Thus a small barrel, 
set within a large one, will answer the purpose. 
The space between the two should be carefully 
closed at the top, so as to preserve a close stratum 
of air between them, and a cover, pierced with holes, 
fitted upon the inner one. Fruits have been kept 
thus for a long time. 

Upon a more extended plan an excavation is 
made in the side of a hill of the size required for 
the room, exceeded by about three feet in each 
direction. It is then enclosed by a wall, and the 
top arched over, the earth being thrown over the 
whole ; or it may be covered by a wooden roof, if 
trees are planted so as to shade it. The inside of 
this w^all is covered with cement. Within this the 
frame of the fruit-room is raised, and covered with 
well-matched boards, so as to leave a close air- 
chamber between it and the w^all. From the top of 
the room should be ample ventilation, but not con- 
necting with the surrounding air-chamber. The 
entrance should have double doors, and the passage 
between them be also lined with matched boards 
31 . 



362 TEMPERATURE OF FRUIT-ROOMS. 

SO as to preserve the air-chamber perfectly tight. 
Such a room will answer every purpose in both 
summer and winter. 

Fruits should never be placed where the temper- 
ature descends below forty degrees Fahrenheit, for 
the effect is much the same as in freezing ; the ripe- 
ening process is checked, seldom to be resumed. 

As a general rule those varieties of fruit which 
have the highest tint will mature earlier than those 
which are green, and in some kinds, such as the 
Vicar of Winkfield pear, those specimens which 
have not a red cheek are difficult to ripen at all in 
the fruit-room, and must be used for culinary pur- 
poses. 

In packing apples or pears for transportation, the 
boxes or barrels should be filled so full that there 
will be no jolting, as that would bruise and ruin 
the whole. They should be pressed so hard that 
the upper layer will be destroyed, and then they 
will be transported safely. Packing them in ma- 
hogany sawdust will prevent decay. 

Formerly grapes were packed closely in bran, 
but by this means they were rendered unfit for 
exhibition. They are now sent hundreds of miles 
without any packing whatever among the bunches. 
They should be laid on the thickness of four sheets 
of cotton wadding, and tied down by the shoulders 
with stout cotton thread, which has previously been 
fastened to the bottom of the box. Let the layer 



PRESERVATION OF GRAPES. 363 

of grapes be composed of bunches laid closely 
together, and as nearly of equal thickness as possi- 
ble. Put no paper over them, but let thin boards 
be fitted to rest securely over the bunches as closely 
as possible without actually touching them. Pad 
the upper side of these boards with cotton, on which 
secure another layer, and thus proceed until the 
box is filled.^ These directions are for grapes grown 
under glass, whose skin is thin and tender ; so great 
a thickness of cotton would not be necessary for the 
native grapes of this country. 

For the preservation of grapes they should be 
cut with a joint or more of wood below the bunch. 
A clean cut should be made, and sealing-wax ap- 
plied to exclude all air from communicating through 
the tissue of the wood with the fruit. The bunches 
should then be hung on cords suspended across a 
closet in a cool, airy room, taking care that they do 
not touch each other ; and they can be cut down as 
wanted. They must not be exposed to a current of 
warm air, nor yet be so damp as to cause mould. The 
proper sealing of the bunches is a most important 
feature in the operation. This is best done by 
charring the end of the stem. This process closes 
the vessels, and prevents the escape of the sap, and, 
of course, also the decay of the berry where it 
adheres to the stem. We have thus kept autumn 
grapes in a perfect state during the whole winter, 
till early in the succeeding spring. 

1 Gardeners' Chronicle of 1848. 



CHAPTER XI. 

GRAFTING AND BUDDING. 

INFLUENCE OF THE STOCK — OP THE SCION — THE SEASON — THE WAX 

— METHODS — THE CLEFT GERFFE A UN SEUL RAMEAU, DONT UNE 

PARTIE DU SUJET EST COUPEE EN BISEAU THE CROWN TUBULAR 

BUDDING WITH DORMANT EYES — THE PEG GREFFE SYLVAIN, RE- 
NEWAL, SIDE, WHIP GREFFE FENARI DE THOUIN — GRAFTING FRUIT- 
SPURS INARCHING GREFFE MORCEAU COMMON INARCHING, IN 

THE AXIS OF THE LEAF, SQUARE BUD, TUBULAR BUD — GREFFE EN 

ECUSSON THE BUDDING-MACHINE FOR IMMEDIATE FRUITING — 

RENEWAL — GRAFTING THE VINE — MIDSUM3IER — EMBRYONIC. 

^HESE are among the most interesting and im- 
portant operations of the orchardist; for by 
means of them he can transform his trees from 
those of little value to such as are of rare ex- 
cellence. Without these processes there would be 
no way of disseminating many desirable fruits ; for, 
as each variety originated in a single tree, by the 
natural course of reproduction from seed, there 
would never be a certainty of another like it. 

Although the influence of the stock upon the 
scion may be small in altering its specific character, 
yet there is no doubt that it does in some degree 
change its appearance and texture. The reader has 
probably seen two trees of the same sort standing 
side by side, exposed to the same influences, and 



EFFECT OF THE STOCK. 865 

receiving the same care, which universally have 
differed in the form, color, size, or flavor of their 
fruit, or in the growth and foliage of the tree. Two 
trees of the Beune Superfin pear, both standards, 
stood within ten feet of each other, and received the 
same care. One of them always produced large, 
yellow russet fruit of very fine flesh, and of a deli- 
cious, vinous, nutty flavor, while the other as con- 
stantly bore large, green, smooth fruit, wdthout 
russet, and of coarse texture and poor flavor. The 
influence of the quince stock upon the pear is very 
evident, as is that of the Paradise and Doucin stock 
upon the apple. 

Yet while a given sort may vary, it does not lose 
those distinct peculiarities by which it can be readily 
recognized. A tree was grafted with three different 
kinds of pears, one naturally cracked and spotted, 
the second remarkably fair and clean in its appear- 
ance, and the third a russet. The tree soon fruited, 
and all these varieties produced the same year, each 
one preserving perfectly distinct its own peculiarities, 
while all were fed from a common root and stem. 
This faculty was supposed to result from the effect 
of the foliage of each, which elaborated its sap to 
suit its own wants. But against this hypothesis 
must be brought the oft-repeated experiment of 
grafting rings of bark, one above another, and not 
allowing a shoot to grow from them ; even then 
they retain their distinctive characters. Thus we 
31* 



366 INFLUENCE OF THE SCION UPON THE STOCK. 

would say that while the foliage aids in accomplish- 
ing this result, yet the main work lies hidden in the 
secret recesses of each cell. 

That the scion has a great influence over the 
stock, is also easily observed, particularly in the 
formation of roots. The amount of its influence 
depends greatly upon the fact, whether or not the 
scion forms the whole top. If a portion of the 
limbs of the old wild stock is retained, the native 
character will be prominent in the roots ; but if the 
scion has full control, the name of the variety can 
be as readily determined by a careful observer of 
them as from the branches. The general habit of 
the tree beneath the ground corresponds usually 
with that above. When the tree throws an upright, 
stiff" head, as in the Bufl'um pear, the roots as di- 
rectly descend. Where the head is crooked, and 
the shoots turn with curious elbows, the roots cor- 
respond. Trees with abundant limbs, and compact 
heads, have a close and generous supply of roots. 
Those which cast withy shoots, like the Winter 
Nelis pear, have wiry roots. Those which have 
a few fat branches, like the Vicar of Winkfield pear, 
have a few chubby roots. Men who have worked 
for years in nurseries, and have been accustomed to 
digging trees, are aware of these peculiarities. The 
Bufl'um pear tree, on account of its strong, straight 
top roots, will, as they say, " bear a pull," while 
such a method with the straggling Eostiezer would 



THE SEASON OF GRAFTING. oG7 

deprive it of all its valuable fibres. This formation 
of a system of roots corresponding with the top, 
must of course begin when the stock is young, to 
be perfect in its character ; for when it has reached 
a mature age, the insertion of a scion could not 
alter the peculiarities of those roots already in ex- 
istence, although it would be a guide in the forma- 
tion of those to be made. 

The season of grafting varies according to the 
plan to be used. There are those adapted to all 
times in the year. As a general rule, those per- 
formed with ripe^ dry wood should be done while 
the tree is dormant, or while the leaves are off, and 
after danger of severe frosts is past ; and that with 
green wood, while the tree has such upon it during 
the summer. The knife to be used in the operation 
should be sharp, for the same reasons as were given 
in the chapter on pruning. If the scion is cut with 
a dull instrument, and the tissue torn and lacerated, 
the chances of its healing or joining with the main 
stock are much lessened. In all operations in gar- 
dening in which a knife is used, it is absolutely 
requisite that it should have a keen edge. 

No tree of full size should have its whole head 
cut off and grafted at once, as it is too great a shock 
and disturbs disastrously the balance which nature 
keeps between the stem and the root. The result 
of such treatment would be likely to be an enormous 
growth, which if not killed the first winter, is 



3G3 GRAFTING-WAX. 

almost sure to be the second, and thus the whole 
tree would be lost. Not more than one-third should 
be grafted at a time, and thus its vitality will be 
preserved. 

After the scions begin to grow, water-shoots are 
often thrown out from the stock, which, if not re- 
moved, will exhaust the nutriment necessary for the 
growth of the grafts. If the scion grows strongly, 
it may need some support to protect it, while green 
and soft, from breaking by the action of the wind. 
In that case a stick tied to the stock, to which the 
scion is caught, will be a preventive. 

Scions of the apple, pear, peach, and plum are 
better and more certain of freedom from injury in 
winter, if they are cut in the month of December, 
preceding the grafting of the next spring. They 
should be rolled in a damp cloth during the winter, 
being tied previously in bundles of from twenty-five 
to fifty, and the ends, which are cut, plunged into 
melted grafting-wax. Thus they will be preserved 
bright and fresh until the spring. 

Graftmg^wax is made of one part tallow, one part 
beeswax, and two parts resin. The tallow and bees- 
wax should be melted first, then the resin, and the 
whole poured together and well stirred. Care must 
be taken that no fire be near, as the composition is 
highly combustible. After it is well mixed it is 
poured in small quantities into a tub of cold water, 
and worked like molasses candy. No more should 



THE GRAFTING-POT. 3G9 

be jDoured into the water at a time than can be 
worked at once, as it will cool very quickly and 
require to be melted again. This wax is greatly 
superior to any other within the knowledge of the 
author. 

For some of the smaller grafts it is often better 
to use waxed paper. For this purpose strips of 
paper are floated in the melted wax for a moment, 
so as only to moisten one side, and then permitted 
to cool. 

When the wax is applied, it should be carried in 
a pot of hot water, and the hands of the operator 
should be smeared with some oily substance. Below 
is a figure of a pot which is often used for this pur- 
pose. 

{a) represents the pot containing the hot water in 
which is the wax. 

(&) is the lamp. 

(cc) are the holes which ad- 
mit air. 

(dd) are the holes which 
complete the draft. 

{e) is the vessel containing 
the fat to be rubbed on the 
hands as the wax is used. The pot for the water 
can be taken out, and should, of course, be provided 
with a cover. 




370 



THE CLEFT GRAFT. 



THE METHODS OF GRAFTING. 



1. The cleft graft. This is the most common 
method of grafting old trees. It consists in sawing 
off the limb at the point where it is desirable to in- 
sert the scions. It is then smoothed 
with the knife. A clean cleft is 
made with a sharp knife and a 
mallet. The scion is cut. If the 
wood is of good growth, one con- 
taining two or three buds is enough. 
The scion is next pared down in 
the form of a wedge, one eye being 
on the part forming the wedge, as 
at {a) in the cut No. 2, which, when 
inserted, is placed outside, as in (h) 
of figure 1. The outer side of the 
wedge is left wider than the inside, 
as the grasp is then firmer. In set- 
ting the scion, no regard should be 
paid to having the outer surface of 
the bark of the scion and the stock even; for as the 
latter is much older and thicker than the former, 
such a proceeding would prevent the junction of the 
inner bark, through which the sap flows in its 
downward course, and by means of which the two 
are joined. Great care should therefore be used to 
have the inner bark of both meet. A peg should 
be used to keep the cleft open while the scions are 




THE CLEFT GRAFT. 371 

being inserted, after which it should be withdrawn. 
The wax, having been formed into a thin plate in 
the fingers, is first placed upon the top of the stump, 
pressed firmly without moving the scions, and then 
brought over the sides to the dotted lines in figure 
1, except when the clefts are made, and it is carried 
down so as to cover the whole, save the eye at (&). 
Thus the air will be entirely excluded. 

It is not desirable in the end that both the scions 
should remain, as a crotch would be formed which 
would be liable to split in after years. Therefore, 
after the second year the scion should be selected 
which has thrown out the strongest shoot, and a cut 
should be made to it. This should be waxed thor- 
oughly, and the wound will soon heal completely 
over, and care for itself. The inquiry may be sug- 
gested to the reader, AVhy not cut the other scion 
off at the top of the stump, as well as to cut in a 
slanting direction ? The reason is, that the remain- 
ing scion will heal over a slanting cut much quicker 
than one that is square ; and if it is merely cut off, 
that part is very apt to become diseased before it is 
calloused over. In some cases, when the limb which 
comes from the eye (h) is desirable, it may be done ; 
but it should be avoided if possible. The benefit 
of putting in two scions at first is, that the chance 
of success is greater, and that the balance with the 
roots is kept more even. Sometimes, however, a single 
scion is used, when is formed what the French call — 



372 



THE BERTEMBOISE AND D'ALBRET. 



2. Greffe a im seul rameaUy dont une partie du sujet 
est coupee en hiseau, or Bertemboise. 

3. The crown graft. After the limb 
has been sawed off at the proper pomt, 
and the wound smoothed with the 
knife, one, two, or three slits are made 
in the bark (as at «), according to the 
number of scions which are to be in- 
serted, and the bark slightlj^ raised on 
each side of it. The scion is then 
carefully cut thin upon the inside, and 
is slid down between the bark and the 
wood, — the side which is cut being 
toward the wood. 

4. D'Albret, or tubular budding ivith 
dormant eyes. This is similar to that 
performed with pushed eyes, to be de- 
scribed hereafter, except that the latter 

is done in August, when the sap is running, and 
upon those species of trees whose bark will not rise 
in the spring. This is done exclusively upon the 
young wood. The top is not cut off, as when graft- 
ing with pushed eyes, but the bark having been 
taken from the part to be grafted, the tube of bark 
to be put on is cut longitudinally, so that it will go 
on easily. The benefit in leaving the top on is that 
the new bark will partake of the growth of the 
shoot during the summer, and become united much 
better. 




CxREFFE SYLVAIN, THE PEG, AND THE RENEWAL. 373 



5. Peg-grafting, Be M. Thouin. A hole is bored 
into the stock, of an inch or more in depth, accord- 
ing to its size, and around the hole the outer bark 
is removed, so as to leave the liber exposed. Then 
a scion is selected of the size of the stock, and its 
lower end sharpened like a peg, so as to fit the 
hole. The scion must have a shoulder, and the 
liber must meet that of the stock ; — upon the latter 
particular depends the whole success of the operation. 

6. Greffe Sglvain. This consists in makin.^ a 
cut like that represented in {a) 
upon two trees near each other, 
and bending them so that they 
unite. They are then fastened 
by a nail. This method is used 
only for ornamental purposes. 

7. Renewal grafting. When a large tree is broken 
off near the ground, a new head 
is sometimes formed by a plan 
described by M. Thouin. A small 
tree is planted by the side of it, 
and a slanting, triangular cut is 
made in the side of the old trunk, 

as at (a), while the young one is pared to match it, 
as at (6). This is then inserted and bound on. 
The scion thus derives strength from its own roots, 
and a union will soon be formed with the old trunk 
when the scion is separated from its own roots, and 
becomes the head of the large tree. 
32 






374 



SIDE, WHIP GRAFT, ETC. 




8. Side grafting, A chisel is used to make the 
notch in the trunk, as at {a). A 
slit is then made down the bark, 
which is raised a little. The scion 
is then cut thin, that the bark at 
(h) may close over it, and a heel 
left at (c), where it rests upon [a). 

The sap, as it flows upward, is stopped by the notch, 
and tends to nourish the scion. 

9. Whip grafting. Greffe en feute dite a VAnglaise. 
The stock and scion are chosen of the 

same size, and each is sharpened on 
one side, by a cut of about equal 
length. That on the stock, of course, 
slants upward, and that on the scion 
downward. A tongue is then cut in 
both, the one being the counterpart 
of the other. These are interlocked, 
and the whole bound together. 

10. Greffe Ferari de Thouin. It is necessary here 
that the stock and scion be of equal size. 
The latter is now cut (unlike the Bertem- 
boise) of the same thickness at both sides 
or edges, in the form of a wedge. A piece 
of the stock of the same size is then taken 
out, instead of making a cleft. This method 

is more particularly adapted to soft-wooded plants. 

11. The fruit-spurs of one tree are sometimes 
grafted upon another. This is advantageous where 





INARCHING. 375 

it is desired to prove a great many sorts, and the 
number of trees is small. The operation is per- 
formed in September. The bark upon the limb 
which is to receive the bud is cut in the form of a 
T, and the sides raised a little with the ivory of the 
budding-knife, and the spur, its wood being pared 
down very thin, is slid in, bound and waxed, to prevent 
all access of air and moisture. The fruit produced 
upon these spurs is said to be of extraordinary size. 

12. Inarching. Among the various plans which 
are described by M. Thouin, is one for strengthen- 
ing a tree by giving it the help of its neighbor. 
The tree of which it is intended to make the scion 
is bent over toward the one which it is to aid, so 
as to determine where it is to be cut. This is then 
done, and the part which is to be toward the tree 
is sharpened as if for a whip-graft. At the point 
where this is to be inserted in the main tree, a per- 
pendicular cut is made, and an incision in the bark 
below, to allow the wedge to enter easily. The 
sharpened top of the smaller tree is then slid into 
the place prepared for it, and bound firmly, to pre- 
vent the wind from changing its position ; the 
wound is then covered with wax. It is very im- 
portant that the graft be well bound, that all moist- 
ure be excluded. 

13. Greffe morceau. This is done with wood of 
one or two years' growth, and the scion and stock 
should be of the same diameter. The tree to 



376 



GRAFTING AT THE AXIS OF THE LEAF. 




be used as the arch or scion is bent as before, 
and when cut is sharpened on both 
sides like a wedge, as in figure (a). 
In the stock is made an incision 
from the outside, slanting upward to 
the very pith, as in figure (&), when 
the wedge is slid into it, bound, and 

waxed as below. 

14. The common method of inarcliing small plants 
is, after placing them both together, to pare a slice 
from the side of each, of about equal size, when they 
are simply brought together, and treated like the 
others. These latter three methods are used when 
the species or variety will not endure grafting in 
the more independent ways. 

15. Root-grafting of the vine. Some cultivators 
affirm that they have tried this process with great 
success ; but our experience is quite different. 

16. Grafting in the axie of the leaf In the axis 
of a young shoot or a leaf a 
downward slit is made almost 
to the heart, and into it is 
placed a wedge-shaped scion of 
the same size. It must be re- 
membered, says Albret, that the 
cleft should be made in green 
wood as quickly as possible, 
else the knife will deposit oxide 
of iron, which is easily distinguished in the stained 




BUDDING. 



377 




appearance of the wood, and which is very inju- 
rious. 

17. Square hud-grafting. This is performed by 
cutting out a square piece of the bark, 
as at (a), and putting in its place a sim- 
ilar one of the variety designed to be 
grafted, and binding so as to exclude 
the air. 

18. Tubular hud-grafting. When the bark will 
rise, the end of the shoot to be 
operated upon is cut off at a place 
where it is free from all inequali- 
ties, and the bark stripped down 
for about an inch, as in figure a. 
A scion is selected a little larger, 

and its limits marked out with the knife below. 
After being held in the hand a minute or two, the 
bark will expand and the tube come off, when it 
should be placed upon the bare wood, and the bark 
stripped down until it fits tightly. 

19. Greffe en ecusson (budding). This has the 
advantage that, if it does not succeed, the subject has 
not been injured by the operation, and another bud 
can be introduced. The proper season is when the 
sap is flowing, and the bark will rise easily. All 
shoots which would interfere with the young bud are 
first cut away. Detaching the bud is done in two 
ways. Some species of plants have tender wood and 
bark, and it is necessary that the wood be removed 

32* 




^78 BUDDING. 

from the back of the bud, which is done as fol- 
lows : 

The knife is inserted at (a), and drawn to (b), 
J y through the bark and wood; then a transverse 
cut is made ony through the hark at (6), from 
the cut on the opposite side to that upon 
this ; the bud is then grasped by the thumb 
and finger, and by a slight pressure will 
separate from the wood. 

Usually, however, it is not necessary to 
separate the wood from the bud, and then the long 
cut at (b) is carried out. A cut is then made in the 
stock of the shape of a T, the upright part being 
the same length as the bud to be inserted. The 
bark is rolled back slightly to admit the bud, and it 
is slid down, the bark brought over it, and bound 
tightly. 

The author invented a machine for doing this 
work, a few years since, which worked successfully. 
A description of it is given more as a matter of 
curiosity than in the belief that it would be of 
practical value in the hands of our common work- 
men. 

The machine consisted of a cylinder about three 
inches long. The upper inch of this contained 
another cylinder, which was made to revolve. This 
contained on its exterior ten grooves, of a shape 
suited to hold each a bud ready for insertion, the 
part of the bud which was to go next the stock 



THE BUDDING-MACHINE. 379 

being turned outward. The casting of the machine 
was made of German silver, to prevent the oxidation 
which would be produced by iron. This cylinder 
was made to revolve but one of these grooves at a 
time, by means of a lever on the top, which locked 
into a notch at every move, bringing the bud toward 
the exterior groove in the machine, when the stock 
was clasped. These clasps were India-rubber, which 
opened when pushed against the stock, and clasped 
it when it entered the groove. There was a knife 
that cut the top incision of the T, which worked by 
a spring from behind. An erect shaft held a plough- 
shaped knife, which cuts the perpendicular incision 
of the T and opens the bark. The lower end of 
the bud fitted behind the plough, and was pushed 
down so as to leave the bud under the bark by 
means of a rod which followed; the plough-knife 
then sprang out, and back into its original place. 
It is kept against the stock by a spring which works 
against a lever in the interior of the machine. The 
placing of buds by means of it was much more 
rapidly performed than it could be by hand, and its 
execution was beautiful, at the same time that it 
was hard for the operator. The fault of the ma- 
chine was that it was not sufficiently automatic. 

20. Grafting for immediate fruiting. When a new 
seedling promises well through its general groAvth, 
it is exceedingly desirable that some method be used, 
if possible, to determine, in a shorter time than 



380 RENEWAL GRAFTING. 

would be required for the natural maturity of the 
young tree, the character of the fruit. Mr. Eobert 
Cornelius, of Philadelphia, has from his fund of 
ingenuity invented the following : As soon as the 
young seedling has grown sufficiently to mature 
from six to ten buds, a good strong shoot is selected 
upon an old bearing tree, and these buds are in- 
serted in a spiral form, as they are always placed 
naturally. The next spring the terminal bud is 
allowed to grow, while the lower ones are pinched 
according to the rules for forming a fruit-bud. By 
this method fruit will often be secured much earlier. 

21. Renewal grafting. Often the orchardist or the 
vigneron is puzzled how in the best way to fill the 
blank side of a tree with limbs. A system of in- 
arching may be advantageously resorted to. A 
young shoot is bent forward to the place which the 
limb is desired to occupy, and a slice taken from it 

and from the trunk, either with or 
without a tongue. They are both 
placed together and bound firmly, as 
in the figure. After the limb is per- 
fectly united, and has acquired suffi- 
cient strength, it is cut where the 
transverse line indicates. 

22. Grafting the vine. The root-grafting of the 
vine is so uncertain an operation, in the hands of 
most cultivators, that they must hesitate to cut 
down a whole vine to prove a new variety of no 





MIDSUMaiER GRAFTING OF THE VINE. 381 

established merit. Our readers are again indebted 
to Mr, Cornelius. A joint of the vine which is to 
become the scion is selected, which bends outward 
as much as possible, and each end being sharpened, 
is forced into a cut made for it, as seen 
in the figure. After becoming thor- 
oughly established, the old wood is cut 
off at the transverse lines, and the sap 
is allowed to flow uninterruptedly to 
the scion. 

23. Midsummer grafting the vine. The soft end 
of a growing shoot should be selected of not more 
than a half-inch in length, and sharpened with a 

very keen knife. (&) is where the in- 
cision is made for the scion [a) ; it thus 
occupies the place of an auxiliary 
bud, and if the growth of the lateral is 
checked, this will push and grow very 
strong. The lateral must be shortened 

gradually, however, according as the scion is capable 

of disposing of the sap. 

24. Grafting embryos. Dr. Lindley, on pages 627 
and 698 of Volume I., 1855, of Gardeners' Chronicle, 
gives an account of this very curious operation. It 
is done, he says, in Egypt, where it is said to be a 
very old custom. It is claimed that thus an orange, 
citron, and lemon were all " combined into one fruit 
beneath a common rind." Of this fact there is no 
doubt. " It was said by the people of the country 




382 



GRAFTING EMBRYOS. 



to be produced by grafting the embryos of the 
three fruits, which are allied to each other by family 
relationship. The manner was as follows : One of 
the three seeds is wholly skinned, so as to lay the 
embryo quite bare; the skin of the others is re- 
moved from one side only. This being done, the 
naked embryo is placed between the others, so as to 
be in contact with their skinned sides, and the 
whole is bound with fine grass. They are then 
committed to the ground in the usual way. The 
embryos grow together into one plant, and ulti- 
mately the trifacial fruit in question is produced." 
Dr. Lindley thought the operation was possible 
because such things often resulted from accident. 
M. Decaisur found seeds often containing more 
than one embryo, " which occasionally grew to each 

other, forming a true 
vegetable twin." Cu- 
cumbers and nectarines 
are thus sometimes pro- 
duced double. An ex- 
ample is presented by 
the monstrous apple of 
which a figure is an- 
nexed. In this instance, 
two apple-flowers, acci- 
dentally brought into 
close contact in the ear- 
liest state of the bud, being kept firmly in contact 




GRAFTING EMBRYOS. 383 

as they advanced in growth, ended by becoming 
half incorporated, notwithstanding they ended by 
finally becoming a twin fruit, consisting of two very 
unequal halves. In the smaller fruit four cells for 
seeds were formed, but in the larger but three. In 
other respects the structure was complete, but each 
was furnished with a vein of elevated lines on the 
side next the junction. The nature of these is 
unknown to us. What is particularly deserving 
of attention here is, that the hairy surface of the 
young apple offered no obstacle to the junction in 
question; possibly it took place before the hairs 
were formed. It remains to be proved by practice, 
but certainly appears a possible, but exceedingly 
difficult operation." 



CHAPTER XII. 

THE PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. 

CHANGE IN THE VEGETABLE WORLD — EFFECT OF CLIMATE, SOIL, AND 
POSITION — CULTIVATION, DEGENERACY, OR DETERIORATION — DECREP- 
ITUDE — METHODS OF PRODUCTION — SELECTION — VAN MONS' THEORY 
AS DISTINGUISHED FROM IT — CULTIVATED FRUITS NOT DESCENDED 
FROM THEIR MILD TYPES — IMPORTANCE OF SECURING SEED FROM A 
YOUNG TREE HYBRIDIZATION — EXPERIMENTS OP KOLREUTER, HER- 
BERT, KNIGHT, GAERTNER, LINDLEY, PURKINJE, MIRBEL, ADOLPHE 
BROGNIART, CONRAD SPRENGEL, CASSINI, ALPHONSE DE CANDOLLE, 
SCHLEIDEN, FRITSCHE, THWAITES, MR. ROGERS — MANNER OF OPERA- 
TION. 

/^NE of the most interesting properties of vegeta- 
ble, as well as animal nature, is its susceptibil- 
ity to change. This does not extend, however, to 
species, genera, orders, or classes, but is confined to 
varieties; thus the seed of a pear or apple will 
always produce the same species of fruit, w^hile a 
variety of these species always originates in its 
ofi'spring a totally different character ; and the 
improvements of which these varieties are capable, 
through the skill of man, are without end. Let us 
consider some of the means which man makes use 
of to create these changes. 

Difference of climate. It is evident that, if a va- 
riety of peach or other fruit be brought from a 



INFLUENCE OF CLIMATE UPON OFFSPRING. 385 

warm climate to a cooler one, the effect would be 
to stunt its vigor, prevent the perfect ripening of 
the fruit, as well as that of the wood. A seedling 
raised from such a tree, we should expect, would be 
possessed of less vigor than its parent, bear fruit of 
inferior quality than when in its native clime, at the 
same time that it would gain greater hardiness of 
wood, which would adapt it to its new position. If 
this same tree should be removed from its native 
clime to another, more favorable, it would find 
physical influences as unadapted to its character as 
the parent found in its place of nativity, and the 
next generation would return again to the first 
type. Thus through successive generations nature 
adapts the variety to the conditions in which it is 
placed. Mr. Knight, in a paper which he read 
before the London Horticultural Society, in 1806, 
said: "If two plants of the vine, or other tree of 
similar habits, or even if obtained from cuttings of 
the same tree, were placed to vegetate during several 
successive seasons in very different climates, — the 
one planted on the banks of the Ehine, and the 
other on those of the Nile, — each would adapt its 
habits to the climate in which it was placed ; and if 
both were subsequently brought in early spring to 
a climate similar to that of Italy, the plant from 
the north would instantly vegetate, while the other 
would remain torpid." We think, however, that 
the observation of Mr. Knight has not been sus- 
33 



386 CULTIVATION AFFECTING THE OFFSPRING. 

tained by subsequent investigation, and that it has 
been found that the qualities of the plant itself do 
not vary so much as he then believed. If this had 
been so, the foreign varieties of peach in this country 
should have obtained something near the hardiness 
of our native varieties. It is true that conditions 
may exist which will bring out in bolder relief some 
inherent quality which they possessed, and which 
was not evident in the country from which they 
came, because the influence did not exist to mature 
them ; and in their new position these qualities, 
thus strongly brought out, may be stamped strongly 
upon their offspring ; yet we have no reason to 
believe that the constitution of the plant itself will 
be in the least degree altered. 

Soil and position also influence the character of 
the ofi'spring of fruit trees. Thus a pear tree 
requiring for its successful cultivation a light 
soil, if planted upon heavy land will be likely to 
produce progeny suited to such a soil. This, how- 
ever, depends upon the care and skill used in its 
cultivation. If it be neglected, and the soil be cold 
and wet, it will be likely to entail disease upon the 
next generation, when proper cultivation would have 
secured an invaluable variety. 

Cultivation. This does not improve the character 
of the plant itself, but has an immense influence to 
induce hardiness, vigor, early maturity, and product- 
iveness. Those particular means should be used 



DETERIORATION OF VARIETIES. 387 

which will have the effect to bring out prominently 
some desirable trait in the offspring. If hardiness 
is desired, those methods should be employed which 
shall conduce to the perfect ripeness of the wood of 
the parent tree ; if vigor, those which shall produce 
this ; if early maturity and productiveness, vigorous 
summer pinching and root-pruning, to produce such 
in the parent. 

It may be suggested by some that there is no 
necessity for the production of new sorts as long as 
we have those which are delicious, and which satisfy 
our wants. But it must be remembered that varie- 
ties have a limit of existence. They increase in 
strength until they reach an age like that of man- 
hood in the human race, when deterioration and 
decay commences. This is not confined to the ori- 
ginal seedling tree, but extends to all the buds or 
scions obtained from it directly or indirectly. Thus, 
if we do not produce new sorts, the standard of 
excellence will become very much lower by the 
deterioration of the older kinds, and at last none 
will be left worth cultivation. This can be seen in 
the fact that many of the sorts which were once 
vigorous, hardy, and easily grown, with ordinary 
cultivation, now resist the nicest conditions to their 
production and health. The St. Germain pear was 
once remarkably fine and beautiful in this country, 
and was cultivated with comparative ease ; but now 
it is almost impossible to bring it to any degree of 



388 THE LENGTH OF PLANT LIFE. 

perfection. By some this may be referred to the 
change which has taken place in the climate, to the 
felling of the forests ; but this cannot fully account 
for it, because in new parts of the country, where 
these forests remain standing, it is the same misera- 
ble fruit when compared with its former beauty and 
excellence. The White Doyenne, or St. Michael, 
was once universally fair and beautiful ; but in the 
most favored districts it is every year becoming more 
and more subject to the diseases which have expelled 
it from other regions. 

We are aware that this limit to the life of varie- 
ties is denied by many able men, who state that 
disease rather than decrepitude is the cause of their 
disappearance : yet does not disease in these cases 
result from a weak state of the system on account 
of old age 1 Much room has been left for argument 
to those who oppose this theory, because many who 
have upheld it have endeavored hypothetically to 
state the exact life of varieties. This in some cases 
has been proved by actual experience to be false, 
which has cast obloquy upon the theory. It would 
be as difficult to state exactly the limit of plant-life 
as of that of man. That of the latter is put down, 
in a general way, at threescore years and ten ; and 
yet, by great care, and through the possession of a 
strong constitution, some men live to half as much 
more, while thousands die in infancy. Just so some 
seedlings do not have sufficient strength to survive 



DISEASES OF INFANCY. 389 

a single year in the seed-beds, while others, either 
because they never were affected by disease, or had 
sufficient strength to pass through those exposures 
which a plant, like a child, is peculiarly subject to 
in a state of infancy, survive. It seems evident that 
varieties die in obedience to some great law, higher 
than that of disease, which accomplishes the work. 

" When, towards the end of the last century, Van 
Mons commenced his essays, and published the 
grounds of his theory upon the production of fruit 
trees by means of successive generations, pomology 
was entirely delivered from infancy and the dull 
routine which she had long followed, and took her 
position with the other sciences through the succes- 
sive labors of Quintinie, Merlet, Legendre, and 
Duhamel. The culture, the form, and the descrip- 
tion of fruit trees were from that time established. 
One point was not even alluded to in the works 
of these latter authors ; this was that of the degen- 
eracy or deterioration of varieties. 

*' According to Van Mons, the cause of this degen- 
eracy is the age of the variety. He thus expressed 
himself: 

" ' The decay of the old varieties of fruit is gen- 
erally complained of, and with reason. Every one 
remarks the imperfections of the old sorts, and 
avows it with grief I know nothing so deplorable, 
in point of culture, as to raise a tree in the hope of 
deriving pleasure from its fruit, and to see it go to 



890 VAN MONS UPON DECREPITUDE. 

ruin at the very moment when this hope ought to 
be realized. Is there anything more discouraging 
than the loss of the labor bestowed during the for- 
mation of the tree, without hope of being rewarded 
for its care in the future I It is attacked during its 
infancy by all the diseases to which old age is liable. 

" ' If disease results from decrepitude, it will be 
persistent, and no remedy can apply to it. When 
disease results from some foreign cause, which it is 
in our power to avoid, it ceases when the influenc- 
ing cause is withdrawn. An imperfect form, an 
unseasonable pruning, a barren or too-wet soil, an 
exposure which the air and light cannot reach freely, 
are the causes of artificial diseases. 

" ' The age of the variety dates from the moment 
when it is produced from the seed ; its first step 
toward old age or decay dates from the time when 
it produces its first fruit ; the good or bad quality 
of the fruit, and the greater or less productiveness 
of the tree, influence the length of its life. That 
which bears fruit of excellent quality, abundantly 
and annually, wastes itself sooner than that which 
produces inferior fruit, and in small quantity.' 

" Old age announces itself by loss of vigor, and 
inability to perform healthfully the functions of 
nutrition and reproduction. Before its entire decay, 
and during the time when the tree still produces 
fruit, its approach is to be discerned by bursting 
and cracking of the fruit, and that the flesh, without 



* 



PRODUCTION OF NEW VARIETIES. 391 



juice or flavor, is filled with gritty, vascular matter. 
In the latter stages of decay the wood becomes 
attacked with gangrene, the branches die, one after 
another, without apparent cause. Its inability for 
reproduction will be discovered by the absence of 
flower-buds, or, if they still remain, by the imbecility 
of the organs of generation. 

" According to Van Mons (and it seems to us 
to be sufficiently proved), all our old varieties are 
in full decay ; with many, also, and some of the best, 
this is attaining such a point that their culture is 
almost abandoned. It is very evident not only from 
the experience of the learned professor, but from 
causes which have passed daily under our observation, 
that many old varieties, and also those of less age 
which are not of much reputation in Belgium where 
they are not cultivated on the wall, are fast passing 

away. 

"The Beurre d'Hardenpont, Delices d'Harden- 
pont, Passe Colman, Bon Cretien de Ranee, Reine 
des Poires, Beurre Diel, etc., — fruits known about 
the thne when Van Mons commenced the applica- 
tion of his theory, — already show signs of yielding 
to this natural law of decay." i 

There are two methods by which new varieties 
are produced. 

First, hy selection. This consists in choosing the 

1 Translated from tlie " Annales dc Poraologie." 



392 NATURAL SELECTION. 

best seeds of the finest specimens of fruit, and plant- 
ing them for successive generations. Nature uses 
this method more or less in the production of 
varieties in the vegetable kingdom as vs^ell as the 
animal. In the latter, the strongest and most 
perfect animals conquer and slay those which are 
inferior, according to a merciful provision of Prov- 
idence, and thus a strong and healthy progeny is 
secured, and the race prevented from deterioration. 
Just so, it is generally only the strong, vigorous 
seedling which can resist all the obstacles which it 
meets in its growth ; and such will overshadow and 
kill all which are of an inferior character about it. 
This selection is to be distinguished from that prac- 
tised by Van Mons, in that he planted seeds of the 
wild fruit, and endeavored to produce valuable and 
stronger varieties, free from the diseases peculiar to 
cultivated fruits by amelioration and careful culti- 
vation, upon the hypothesis that our table-fruits 
originated from these wild types. 

Van Mons commenced his experiments upon an- 
nuals and roses, when less than twenty years old, 
and he gives as the result of his observations — 

That successive generations remove the progeny 
further from their condition as wild plants, and 
make them more susceptible to variation according 
as it is repeated often and with the least interrup- 
tion. That a plant once entered upon variation, 
does not return, if, through uninterrupted genera- 



ARTIFICIAL SELECTION. 393 

tions, we do not allow it time to fix itself defin- 
itely; and that an interruption produces in the next 
generation a plant of so much worse quality as has 
been the length of this time. 

That to delay the flowering, produced the most 
beautiful flowers. 

That fertility increases with repeated generations. 

That the plant, after being regenerated a certain 
number of times, loses in vigor what it gains in 
form ; that is to say, that, in laying aside its rude 
and wild nature to take one more delicate and 
domesticated, it becomes more sensitive to the 
severities of the seasons. 

At the age of twenty-two years Van Mons com- 
menced to apply his theory, resulting from his 
experiments upon annual plants, to fruit trees. The 
first generation of Van Mons departed very much 
from its type, producing a crop, after ten or twenty 
years, of very small and inferior fruit. This he 
sowed immediately, and obtained the second genera- 
tion of less wild appearance, but yet not suitable 
for table use. The seeds of this were again sown, 
and so on to five generations, when he obtained 
trees which bore in five to ten years. 

Dr. Van Mons started upon the hypothesis that 
all our cultivated varieties of fruits were ameliora- 
tions, by cultivation and successive generation, of 
the wild sorts ; and yet may not there be a vast 
difference in the specific nature of the wild and 



394 ORIGII^ OF CULTIVATED FRUITS. 

cultivated pear, as well as the three or four other 
fruits which are particular favorites of man 1 That 
is, have not the apple, pear, peach, cherry, apricot, 
vine, etc., always been cultivated since the origin of 
the human race, as the horse, ox, dog, and sheep 
have been domesticated 1 The mention of some of 
these fruits and animals in the very earliest" history 
of man, would lead one to suppose so ; and that the 
results of the successive experiments of Dr. Van 
Mons in the production of thousands of seedlings 
of the pear from the wild type, were practically so 
barren, — not one variety being raised of particular 
merit. The large number of them which the au- 
thor has had the privilege of examining in the 
garden of the Hon. Marshall P. Wilder, all exhibit 
the wild habit and the astringency of the wild type, 
even in the furthest generations from it. His ex- 
periments would almost seem to satisfy scientific 
men that some distinct line separated those cul- 
tivated sorts from those found in a wild state. So 
great is the difference between these remote genera- 
tions of Van Mons, and of valuable sorts, that one 
can, without any view of the labels, easily point 
them out as a separate species of plants. These 
apparently specific properties are transmitted to 
their offspring, and they can be selected and sep- 
arated in the seed-bed, when sown indiscriminately. 
We are aware that some persons will urge, as an 
explanation of this, that by the long domestication 



SELECTION FROM YOUNG TREES. 395 

of the cultivated sorts their characteristics have be- 
come fixed. Yet thelfe are as great specific difi'er- 
ences between the wild and cultivated varieties of 
fruit as between men and the baboon. One might 
as well argue that all the races of men are develop- 
ments of the latter, or admit the mutability of 
species ; and still the abandonment of man to the 
mere satisfaction of his animal appetites, as is the 
case with some of the Bushmen of Africa, continued 
for centuries, produces no more similarity to the 
baboon in him, than in the tribes elevated above 
him of his own race. The cultivated fruit, although 
left to be wild for a generation or two, still never 
fails to preserve well marked its domesticated char- 
acter, any more than the wild sorts lose their char- 
acter under the most accurate culture for generations. 
Among the millions of seedlings from the wdld fruit 
raised for grafting the pear, we have never heard 
of the appearance of a desirable sort. 

The seed should always be taken from young 
trees w^hich are free from disease, so as not to entail 
upon the seedling any difficulty resulting from 
decrepitude in the parent tree. As an instance of 
the importance of securing perfect seed from healthy 
trees, it is stated by one having great practical 
knowledge concerning it, that estates in Scotland 
on which larches are grown, and producing a crop 
of timber worth ten or twenty thousand pounds, 
have been ruined by a disease called dry-rot, rend- 



396 HYBRIDIZATION. 

ering them entirely worthless. Upon investigation, 
it was discovered to have resulted from having ob- 
tained seed from unhealthy trees, while seed from 
the Swiss forests had produced trees which were in 
perfect health. 

Hj/hridizatmi, From 1780 to 1790, Kolreuter 
published the results of his experiments in hybri- 
dizing vegetables. According to Mr. Herbert, this 
interesting branch of horticulture commenced with 
this celebrated man ; but that his efforts were com- 
paratively unnoticed, and induced no further efforts 
until those of Sir Thomas A. Knight, in England. 
Mr. Herbert commenced his experiments upon veg- 
etables in 1819. "While Mr. Knight considered 
a fertile hybrid as proof positive that the parents 
were of the same species, Mr. Herbert denied 
it, and extended it to the genus, and thought there 
was no difference between species and " permanent 
or descendable varieties." This will be denied, 
probably, by most modern physiologists. While va- 
rieties change according to physical influences, spe- 
cific characters do not. No two species ever became 
so confused that there could not be drawn between 
them a distinct line, although this specific character 
may be varied in degree by these influences. One 
of the most remarkable proofs of the fallacy of the 
hypothesis which would make physical influences 
produce mutability of species, is found in the fact 



IMMUTABILITY OF SPECIES. 397 

that there are certam periods marked by an entire 
extinction of the species of flora and fauna, and a 
re-creation under the same types, classes, and orders. 
As Professor Agassiz remarks, this genesis is so 
various among all the different branches, taking 
place at the same time, how could the same physical 
influences produce such opposite characters ] The 
four types of vegetable life are represented as present 
in the earliest formations ; but each had its epoch 
of supremacy. The Carboniferous period was dis- 
tinguished by its remarkable acrogens. The Lipo- 
dendra, or Club-mosses grew from fifty to sixty 
feet in height, and their appearance must have been 
beautiful. The stems of these giants were strength- 
ened by bands or buttresses of vascular fibre run- 
ning vertically. The curious Sagillaria was con- 
temporaneous. The carvings in its trunk resembled 
designs for some highly ornamental style of archi- 
tecture; knots single or double, circles, graceful 
grooves, crescents or eyes, protruded from their 
trunks at regular distances. Their roots were alike 
marked by peculiarities, and probably also their fern- 
like foliage. The Oolitic period brought the beau- 
tiful and varied Thujas, the Biotas, the Pine, and 
other relatives of the Conifera. Then the gym- 
nogens were supreme — then wild forests of ever- 
greens covered the earth. But in the Tertiary 
deposits, the plants of the Carbonifera sink to their 
present size, the Conifera occupy only a portion of 
34 



398 FERTILE HYBRIDS. 

the surface of the earth, which the Monocotyledons, 
or gram-bearing plants, and the Dicotyledons, or 
fruit-bearing make their appearance and predom- 
inate to prepare the earth for man, by affording 
food to the ruminating animals, which compose 
most of his meat, and the fruit tree to tempt his 
appetite. Instead of these different types of vegeta- 
tion gradually succeeding and displacing one another, 
the change has been abrupt and simultaneous, ac- 
companied by great physical commotions. These 
have been not a few ; but, according to some writers, 
from sixty to one hundred. Thus the earth has 
been the theatre of a series of alterations and re- 
creations, which have prepared it to become the 
dwelling-place of intelligent man. 

Mr. Herbert asserts that hybrids between plants 
of the same species do not always produce fertile 
offspring ; but that it " depends upon circumstances 
of climate, soil, and situation ;" and that " there does 
not exist any decided line of absolute sterility in 
hybrid vegetables ; though, from reasons which I 
did not pretend to be able to develop, but undoubt- 
edly depending upon certain affinities, either struc- 
tual or constitutional, there was a greater disposition 
to fertility in some than in others. Subsequent 
experiments have confirmed this view to such a 
degree as to make it almost certain that the fertility 
of the hybrid, or mixed offspring, depends more 
upon the constitutional than the closer botanical 



FECUNDATION DEPENDING ON CONSTITUTION. 399 

affinities of the parents. The most striking and 
unanswerable proof of this fact was afforded by the 
genus Crinum, w^hich is spread round the whole belt 
of the globe, within the tropics and a certain distance 
from them, under a great variety of circumstances, 
affecting the constitution of individuals, which 
nevertheless readily intermix by human agency. 
Crinum Capense impregnated by either Crinum 
Zeylanicum or Scabrum, produced offspring which, 
during sixteen years, proved sterile, probably because, 
notwithstanding their botanical affinity, the first is 
an extra-tropical aquatic plant, and the latter two 
tropical plants which affect dryer habitations, and 
readily rot, at least in this climate, in a wet situa- 
tion." And yet this same plant, impregnated with 
others which were swamp-plants, yielded fertile 
crosses ; and the two which were extra-tropical pro- 
duced a more fertile offspring than one extra-tropical 
and the other tropical. 

The constitution of the offspring will be more or 
less like that of both parents. Thus, if it is desired 
to give hardiness to the offspring of a tender fruit, 
and it is impregnated with the pollen of a hardy 
sort, there is every probability that, while it will 
endure the climate, it will be more sensitive to 
severe extremes, which would not injure its hardy 
parent. Mr. Herbert states that to obtain any pe- 
culiarity in the corolla, the parent which has it 
should be used as the male, and its pollen fertilize 



400 INFLUENCE OF BEES. 

the other, because the corolla belongs to the male 
portion, and is, directly or indirectly, connected 
with the stamens. 

Great care should be taken to protect the plant 
from which the pollen is to be taken from bees or 
other insects, which rob it of this powder. To do 
so, a light netting may be thrown over the twig, 
else they would soon put to an end any certainty 
of pedigree, by bearing pollen grains upon their 
bodies from other plants, which is easily brushed 
upon the stigma as the insect seeks the pollen. 
Another result to be guarded against is the fertil- 
ization of the blossom by its own pollen. This 
can be done by removing all the anthers, or sacs 
which contain it, and the petals, — for in the latter 
case the pollen seems to lose its attraction to the 
insect race. During dry weather, and when the 
stigma is in the proper condition, the fertilization 
may be performed. This state may be detected in 
some plants by a viscous exudation from the surface ; 
in others it is not discernible. The pollen should 
be dry and powdery, which it will not be in cold, 
damp, or chilly weather. The distribution of the 
pollen thinly over the stigma may be performed 
either by a camel' s-hair brush, or by dusting it 
directly from the anther, the stamen being held in 
a pair of nippers. The female has the advantage, 
it is generally conceded, in the process; and we 
should therefore use that one for the seed-bearer 



KOGERS' HYBRID GRAPES. 401 

which has most of the qualities that it is desirable 
to retain in the offspring. Some have assigned the 
determination of habit to one parent, and the bear- 
ing properties to the other. But this is not abso- 
lutely true, as the characters of both are blended. 
For instance, the Rogers' hybrid grapes have, most 
of them, the vigor of the native, or female, but the 
short joints of the foreign, or male. They resemble 
the mother in vigor, hardiness, form, and texture of 
leaf, while the form of the bunch and berry, the 
sex of the blossom, and flavor of the fruit, resemble 
the father. Almost all natural seedlings of our 
native grapes are male, or staminate, and therefore 
fail, in a great degree, to set their fruit, and have 
broken bunches in consequence. But these hybrids 
are like the father in being pistilate or hermaphro- 
dite. 

Gaertner asserts that the juice of the pollen 
grains combine with that of the stigma to fecundate 
the germen, which Herbert considers as very ques- 
tionable, and adds, that the superabundant viscous 
juice on the stigma of some plants obstructs fecun- 
dation. 

The experiments of Mr. Herbert, in regard to 
the slowness of the process of fecundation, seem to 
agree generally with those of Kolreuter. It required 
at least one hour and a half for the pollen grains 
to become emptied ; and the latter gentleman found 
that no more grains than were sufficient to complete 

34* 



402 SLOWNESS OF FECUNDATION. 

the process would change color when placed on the 
surface ; but that the more distant the relationship, 
or (as Herbert expresses it) the affinity, the greater 
was the amount of pollen required ; and as the 
relationship was more or less distant, was the pro- 
portion of perfect seeds procured ; — with the most 
distant, the least number. He thought that the 
life, or sensitiveness, of the stigma was longer when 
fertilized by foreign than by its own pollen. This 
change of the stigma was at very different periods 
in natural fecundation, from eighty-five minutes to 
several hours ; that it probably merely saturates 
the stigma in that time, and does not really fertilize 
the germen. He reasons that, " if the fertilization 
was complete, and the office of the stigma defunct, 
it might be cut off without any detriment, unless 
necessary to the mere nourishment of the ovules, 
whether fertilized or not, which does not seem 
probable; but I have repeatedly cut it off a few 
days after I had applied pollen to the rhododendrons, 
and the result has been that no seed was formed. 
The whole of my observations have led me to think 
that, at any period before the decay of the stigma, 
the access of the natural pollen may supersede the 
influence of the foreign that may have been pre- 
viously applied, if not from a closely allied species 
or variety ; but that, on the other hand, no foreign 
pollen can act upon the germen after the stigma 
has been fertilized naturally. The incomplete sat- 



THE STYLE AFTER FECUNDATION. 403 

uration of the stigma in the first place enables the 
natural pollen to gain access ; but, if the absorption 
of the pollen first applied causes immediate fecun- 
dation, it cannot be explained how the subsequent 
access of the natural dust should supersede it ; and 
it has seemed to me that the natural pollen could 
supersede that of an Azalea on the stigma of an 
evergreen Rhododendron, even after the fiower had 
fallen ofi", 

" This point might be elucidated by cutting off 
the stigma vrith portions of the style of various 
lengths, at diff'erent periods after the application of 
pollen, and seeing in what manner the operation 
interferes with the fructification of the plant. 
Gaertner thinks it doubtful whether the corolla is 
essential to the fertilization of the stigma ; my 
observation is, that its early destruction is very 
prejudicial to the growth of the germen and stigma, 
but that after their development it is not usually 
essential. He observes that the corolla perishes 
more quickly and completely after fecundation, and 
is more persistent, and sometimes withers instead 
of falling off in cases of hybrid impregnation ; but 
he seems not to have distinguished the cases of 
successful and abortive hybrid impregnation. I 
observe that he admits that the viscous juice remains 
on the stigma of Datura and Nicotiana two or three 
days after fecundation, which does not exactly agree 
with his theory, and seems to mark that the stigma 



464 CONDITIONS FAVORABLE TO HYBRIDIZATION. 

has not become quite inoperative. Some days 
elapse before any other signs of fecundation ap- 
pear after the fall of the corolla, such as the en- 
largement of the peduncle, or strengthening of its 
articulation, and that period seems to him longer in 
hybrid impregnation, as well as the interval before 
the seeds are vivified. Both he and Kolreuter 
observe instances, such as I have found, of false 
hybrid impregnation, producing an enlargement of 
the germen, or even seeds with an imperfect embryo, 
or without any. They remarked that they did not 
usually obtain the full complement of seeds from a 
hybrid impregnation, unless the affinity was very 
close. My own observation is that this circumstance 
depends rather on similarity of constitution." 

The art of hybridization can be used not only in 
the production of new sorts by crossing different 
species, but its results are generally of more prac- 
tical value, as applied to crossing the difi'erent 
seminal varieties of the same species. 

When two plants are to be hybridized, it is im- 
portant that both the stigma and the pollen be in a 
state to act upon each other immediately. All 
anthers should be taken off from the flower which 
is to be acted upon, so that its pollen can not an- 
ticipate the action of the foreign grains, and they 
must therefore be removed before they have ap- 
proached the time of dehiscence. To do this it 
will be necessary to open the corolla, and cut these 



NATURAL HYBRIDS. 405 

before the flower has blown. It is equally neces- 
sary, as was shown by the experiments of Gaertner 
and Herbert, that the flower be in a condition after 
fecundation in which it will not be liable to be 
afi'ected by the natural pollen grains. The flower 
from which the dust is taken should be perfect, 
and not withered in the least. 

When we consider how much greater is the 
effect of natural pollen upon its stigma than the 
foreign, does it not appear that hybrids are seldom 
produced in a state of nature ] Many practical men 
have said that the pollen is conveyed so freely in 
all directions, by insects and the wind, that a great 
many of our accidental seedlings of merit are the 
result of this natural hybridization. But, if the 
anthers of the flower were present, their pollen 
grains would assuredly gain the ascendency, even if 
applied afterwards, which renders such a theory 
exceedingly questionable. 

While the pollen of varieties remote in their re- 
lationship acts less freely than that which is closely 
allied, yet Herbert found that the production of 
seed by hybrid varieties is often increased by the 
use of the pollen from closely allied plants. In an 
experiment by him to elucidate this point, he states 
as a result, that " almost every flower that was 
touched with pollen from another cross produced 
seed abundantly; and those which were touched 
with their own, either failed entirely, or formed 



406 MIXTURE OF POLLEN. 

slowly a pod of inferior size with fewer seeds, the 
cross impregnation decidedly taking the lead. This 
circumstance may be analogous to the introduction 
of a male from another flock or herd, which has 
been found advantageous to the breeds of domestic 
animals." 

Herbert was not successful in obtaining any 
results like those of Mr. Knight from the blending 
of the pollen of several species before application. 
He says he " attempted to fecundate a plant with 
the pollen of twelve species, most industriously 
mixed together, but very few seeds were ripened, 
and they difl'ered very little from those which had 
been procured by the pollen of one of the twelve 
species. I obtained mule and natural seed from 
the same capsule, but they were probably formed 
in difl'erent cells. Experiments should be made to 
ascertain whether, in cases of partial and imperfect 
fecundation, the pollen of another species, and even 
of a nearly allied genus, which could not alone 
fertilize the ovary, can act in conjunction with a 
single grain, or at least with an insufiicient quantity 
of the natural dust to aff"ect the fertilization, and 
occasion the seed to produce a variety, not exactly 
hybrid, but in some degree departing from the nat- 
ural form. It is certain, by the result of many 
experiments made at Spofforth, that the pollen of a 
nearly allied genus, which can not affect the pro- 
duction of seed that will vegetate, will often cause 



THE DEHISCENCE OF THE ANTHER. 407 

i 

some of the ovules to swell to a large, and occasion- 
ally to a preposterous size, and become seed-like 
masses without an embryo ; and the same circum- 
stance has been observed in Germany ; and, as it 
can act so far, I do not see the impossibility of its 
influencing the character of the seed when the 
access of natural pollen is insuflicient : and it seems 
to me questionable whether some of the singular 
varieties which occur among vegetables may not 
have been so produced." 

Dr. Lindley states, that " Purkinje demonstrated 
the correctness of Mirbel's opinion in 1808, that the 
dehiscence, or bursting open of the walls of the 
anther, which allows the grains to escape, is gov- 
erned by hygrometrical causes ; or that the inner 
lining of these walls is peculiarly sensitive to the 
dryness and moisture of the atmosphere, as well as 
the ripeness and dryness of the pollen ; that this 
lining is of fibrous, cellular tissue, forming an in- 
finite multitude of little springs," which by their 
concentrated action open the valves of the anthers 
when the pollen is ripe, and the atmosphere dry: 
" so that the opening of the anthers is not a mere 
act of chance, but the admirably contrived result of 
the maturity of the pollen," when the surrounding 
tissue, and of course this inner lining, has been ex- 
hausted of its moisture by the developing pollen 
grains. The observations of Mirbel confirm his 
statement, for he found a great quantity of sap in 



408 DEPOSITION OF THE POLLEN. 

the cells surrounding the pollen, only a little before 
their maturity, while, "by a dislocation of these 
cells, the pollen loses all organic connection with 
the lining of the anther ; and yet these same cells 
are exhausted of their sap and dry when the pollen 
is perfect." 

There are a variety of methods by which the 
pollen is conveyed from the anther to the surface 
of the stigma. In some plants it is by means of 
long hairs. M. Adolphe Brongniart states, " It 
has long been known that the external surface of 
the upper part of the style, and of the stigmatic 
arms of companulaceus plants, are covered with long 
hairs, which are very visible in the bud before the 
dispersion of the pollen, and which are regularly 
arranged in longitudinal lines in direct relation to 
the number and position of the anthers." These, 
and their connection with the pollen, he says, were 
first noticed by Conrad Sprengel, then by Cassini, 
and afterwards by Alphonse De Candolle. "At 
the period of the dehiscence of the anthers, before 
the expansion of the corolla, and when the arms of 
the style are still pressed against each other in the 
form of a cylinder, these hairs cover themselves 
with a considerable quantity of pollen, which they 
brush, so to speak, out of the cells of the anther ; 
and for this reason they have been named collectors. 
At the period w^hen the flowers expand, the arms 
of the style, or stigma, too, separate and curve back- 



THE POLLEN-TUBE. 400 

wards, and the anthers that surround them retire 
and shrivel up, after having lost all their pollen ; 
but at the same time the pollen, which was deposited 
on the outside of the style, detaches itself, and the 
hairs that covered the surface disappear." ^ 

Dr. Lindley remarks in relation to these hairs, 
that if a longitudinal slice of a young style be ex- 
amined before the pollen is emitted, that it will be 
seen that these hairs are found formed without any 
partitions, being an external lengthening of the epi- 
dermis. These hairs, having become covered with 
grains of pollen, begin to retract into cavities of 
about one-half their depth, immediately below them 
in the cellular tissue. 

Soon after the pollen grains reach the stigma 
they commence to emit a tube, which, according to 
Dr. Lindley, does not exceed the one fifteen-hun- 
dredth or one two-thousandth of an inch in diameter. 
It reaches down to the placenta and to the foramen, 
or orifice of the ovule. Among the many methods 
which are provided for the fertilization of the ovule, 
when the position of the foramen is peculiar, and 
which are described by that distinguished author, is 
that of Euphorbia Lathyris, where " the apex of the 
nucleus is protruded far beyond the foramen, so as 
to lie within a kind of hood-like expansion of the 
placenta ; in all campylotropal ovules, the foramen 
is bent downwards by the unequal growth of the 

1 As quoted by Dr. Lindley in his " Introduction to Botany." 

35 



410 CONTENTS OF THE POLLEN-TUBES. 

two sides, so as to come in contact with the con- 
ducting tissue " through which the pollen-tube con- 
taining the fertilizing matter forces itself In some 
plants, " the surface of the conducting tissue actually 
elongates and stops up the mouth of the ovule while 
fertihzation is taking effect. In plants of the genus 
Helianthemum the foramen is at the end of the 
ovule most remote from the hilum ; and although 
the ovules themselves are elevated upon cords much 
longer than are usually met with, yet Brongniart 
ascertained that at the time when the stigma is cov- 
ered with pollen, and fertilization has taken effect, 
there is a bundle of threads, originating in the base 
of the style, which hang down iij the cavity of the 
ovary, and, floating there, convey the influence of 
the pollen to the points of the nuclei." 

As was stated by Herbert, the process of fertiliza- 
tion is very slow, and it is often a great while (sev- 
eral days, or even weeks, after the fecundation of the 
stigma) before the pollen-tube reaches the foramen. 
Yet the life of the corolla, and the other parts of the 
flower, will be finished long before this time. The 
membrane immediately surrounding the embryo is 
called the amnion. Comparative mystery envelopes 
the operation which takes place in this amnionic sac. 

Schleiden maintains that the microscopic observa- 
tions of Fritsche prove that the molecules which 
exist in the pollen and its tubes are not animalcular, 
from the fact that they were undisturbed by alco- 



THE POLLEN GRAIN — THE EMBRYO. 411 

holic solutions of iodine, which would immediately 
kill such ; and he pronounces the contents of these 
tubes as nothing more than a " solution of gum, and 
small crescent-formed bodies, which are starch." 

He doubted the w^isdom of tracing the analogy 
between the animal and vegetable kingdoms, and 
denied even the sexuality of plants as generally 
understood ; that if the pollen-tube be followed to 
the ovule, it will be found that generally only one 
reaches the embryo sac, and, forcing and indenting 
that part which it comes against, it forms the " cylin- 
drical bay which constitutes the embryo in the first 
stage of its development ; " and that it consists only 
of a parenchymatic cell. Thus, on all sides except 
one end, the embryo has a double membrane, having 
that of the indented sac, and that of the pollen- 
tube. Thus the latter becomes the embryo. This 
he has proved, because he has been able to separate 
the tube from the sac after it had considerably ad- 
vanced in development. He stated, even while the 
contents of the pollen grains and the tubes at first 
are simple starch, that they may be changed chem- 
ically in the inter-cellular passage, or they may not. 
Yet from this starch cells are formed at the ter- 
minus of the tube, which eventually become the 
parenchyma of the embryo. He found additional 
proof in the fact that where there was more than 
one embryo in a seed, there was a corresponding 
number of pollen-tubes present. Considered in this 



412 STERILITY AN ADVANTAGE. 

light, it was difficult to find which was the male and 
which the female element, as based upon analogies 
to the animal kingdom. 

The extent to which hybridization can be carried 
is limited. Thus hybrids can, and have been, ob- 
tained from plants of an entirely distinct genera; 
and yet these were sterile, and not capable of pro- 
ducing a new genus of plant. The Creator has wise- 
ly ordered this, else confusion would take the place 
of order. Plants of two species often produce a hy- 
brid ; these are generally sterile, or productive only 
by impregnation from the pollen of one of their 
parents, to which type they will revert in the next 
generation. But this is one of the most fertile 
causes of the production of varieties. Thus, while 
species seem to be immutable, varieties are as muta- 
ble as the individuals from which they originate. 

Sterility is not always a disadvantage, but some- 
times positively the opposite, as regards cultivation. 
For example, such varieties of fruits as are destitute 
of seed are for that very reason eminently desirable, 
because the demand for nourishment which would 
have been made by the seed is not felt, and thus a 
much larger crop of fruit may be realized with less 
exhaustion to the tree. 

In the Annals of Natural History, M. Thwaites 
said, " The most eminent physiologists seem to be ar- 
riving at the opinion, that the fertilization of the 
ovule, as it is termed, consists in the union of a 



THWAITES THEORY. 413 

part of the contents of a pollen grain with cer- 
tain matter contained in the ovule, and that the 
embryo originates from this mixed matter. The 
correctness of this opinion is rendered still more 
probable by the consideration of what takes place, 
under the circumstances of hybridization of species. 
The phenomena which present themselves in these 
cases are of the highest physiological interest ; and it 
seems impossible, after a careful consideration of them, 
to doubt that the hybrid plant owes its existence to — 
consists in its earliest condition of — an endochrome 
made up of a portion of that of each of the parent 
plants ; for the development of the hybrid embryo 
into the mature plant indicates a quality of the con- 
tents of this embryonic cell of a character combining 
that of the endochrome of each of its parents. 

" The ovule of Fuchsia coccinea, fertilized with the 
pollen of Fuchsia fulgens, produces plants of every 
intermediate form between these two species, — some 
of the seedling plants closely resembling one, and 
some the other species, but the majority partak- 
ing equally of the characters of the two plants; 
scarcely, however, will any two be found so much 
alike as to be undistinguishable from each other. 
With respect to each of the hybrid seedlmgs, sep- 
arately considered, there is a uniformity throughout 
in the mixed character of the various parts ; so that 
it is easy, from the examination of the foliage, to 
arrive at a tolerably correct idea of what will be the 
35* 



414 TWIN PLANTS FROM ONE SEED. 

character of the blossom. Som6 persons, perhaps, 
will be disposed to believe that an endochrome may 
be modified in its character, and that the peculiarities 
of the hybrid plant may be produced by the situa- 
tion in which it is at first developed ; but, if this were 
the fact, it is clear that the hybrid seedlings ought 
all to resemble each other as much as do individuals 
of one species, which is far from the truth, as has been 
just now stated. Moreover, a fact came under the 
observation of the writer which completely set aside 
the idea of such an explanation of the phenomena ; 
for, in one example of the hybrid fuchsia seedlings, 
the singular circumstance occurred of one seed pro- 
ducing two plants entirely different in appearance and 
character. It cannot be doubted that these very 
dissimilar structures were the produce of one seed, 
since they were closely coherent below the two pair 
of cotyledon leaves, into a single cylindrical stand, 
so that they had subsequently the appearance of be- 
ing branches of one trunk. The plant was, before 
flowering, killed by an unexpected, severe frost, but 
not before this peculiarity had been observed by 
many persons. In the case just cited, the idea of a 
modification of structure caused by a mere circum- 
stance of situation in the early stages of growth is 
quite untenable ; for, were such the case, it is clear 
there could not have been the great dissimilarity 
which presented itself in these twin plants — the 
product of a single seed." ^ 

1 As quoted by Dr. Lindley. 



KNIGHT'S THEORY. 415 

The conclusions wliich Mr. Knight drew from a 
series of experiments in hybridization were, that 
" new varieties of every species of fruit will generally 
be better obtained by introducing the farina of one 
variety into the blossom of another, than by prop- 
agating from any single sort. When an experiment 
of this kind is made between varieties of different 
size and character, the farina of the smaller sort 
should be introduced into the blossoms of the larger ; 
for, under these circumstances, I have generally 
(but with some exceptions) observed in the new 
fruit a prevalence of the character of the female 
parent ; probably owing to the following causes : 
The seed-coats are generated wholly by the female, 
and these regulate the bulk of the lobes and plan- 
tule ; and I have observed, in raising new varieties 
of the peach, that when one stone contained two 
seeds, the plants these afforded were inferior to 
others. The largest seeds obtained from the finest 
fruit, and from that which ripens most perfectly and 
earliest, should always be selected. It is scarcely 
necessary to inform the experienced gardener that 
it will be important to extract the stamina of the 
blossom from which he purposes to propagate some 
days before the farina begins to shed. When young 
trees have sprung from the seed, a certain period 
must elapse before they become capable of bearing 
fruit ; and this period, I believe, cannot be shortened 
by any means. Pruning and transplanting are both 



416 THE AGE OF PRODUCTIVENESS. 

injurious, and no change in the character or merits 
of the future fruit can be effected during this period, 
either by manure or culture. The young plant 
should be allowed to extend its branches in every 
direction in which it does not injuriously interfere 
with another, and the soil should be sufficiently rich 
to promote a moderate degree of growth, without 
stimulating the plant to preternatural exertion, 
which always induces disease. The soil of an old 
garden is peculiarly destructive. The periods which 
different kinds of fruit trees require to attain the 
age of puberty are very varied. The pear requires 
from twelve to eighteen years ; the apple from five 
to twelve ; the plum and cherry four or five years ; 
the vine three or four ; and the raspberry two. 
The strawberry, if its seeds be sown early, affords a 
crop the succeeding year. 

" A seed, exclusive of its seed-coats, consists of one 
or more cotyledons, a plumule or bud, and the 
caudex or stem of the future plant, which has gen- 
erally, though erroneously, been called its radical. 
In these organs, but principally in the cotyledons, is 
deposited as much of the concrete sap of the parent 
plant as is sufficient to feed its offspring till that has 
attached itself to ,the soil and become capable of 
absorbing and assimilating new matter. 

"The plumule differs from the bud of the parent 
plant in possessing a new and independent life, and 
thence in assuming in its subsequent growth dif- 



GROWTH OF THE SEED. 417 

» 

ferent habits from those of the parent plant. The 
organizable matter which is given by the parent to 
the offspring in this case, probably exists in the cot- 
yledons of the seed, in the same state as in the 
alburnum of trees, and, like that, it apparently un- 
dergoes considerable change before it becomes the 
true circulating fluid of the plant. In some it 
becomes saccharine, in others acrid and bitter, during 
germination. In this process the vital fluid is drawn 
from the cotyledons into the stem of the plumule 
or bud, through vessels which correspond with those 
of the bark of the future tree, and are indeed 
perfect cortical cells. From the point of the stem 
springs the first root, which at this period consists 
wholly of bark and medulla, without any alburnous 
or woody matter; and, if uninterrupted by any 
opposing body, it descends in a straight line toward 
the centre of the earth, in whatever position the 
seed has been placed, provided it has been permitted 
to vegetate at rest. 

" Soon after the first root has been emitted, the 
stem elongates, and, taking a direction diametrically 
opposite to that of the root, it raises, in a great 
many kinds of plants, the cotyledons out of the soil, 
which then become the seminal leaves of the young 
plant. During this period the young plant derives 
nourishment almost wholly from the cotyledons, or 
seed-leaves, and if these be destroyed it perishes. 

" The bark of the root now begins to execute its 



418 GROWTH OF THE SEED. 

office of depositing alburnous or woody matter; and 
as soon as this is formed, the sap, which had hitherto 
descended only through the cortical vessels, begins 
to ascend through the alburnum. The plumule, in 
consequence, elongates, its leaves enlarge and unfold, 
and a set of vessels which did not exist in the root 
are now brought into action. These, which I have 
called the central vessels, surround the medulla, and 
between it and the bark form a circle, upon which 
the alburnum is deposited by the bark in the form 
of wedges, or like the stones of an arch. Through 
these vessels, which diverge into the leaf-stalks, the 
sap ascends, and is dispensed through the vessels 
and parenchymatous substance of the leaf; and in 
this organ the fluid, recently absorbed from the soil, 
becomes converted into the sap, or blood of the 
plant: and as this fluid, during germination, de- 
scended from the cotyledons and seed-leaves of the 
plant, it now descends from its proper leaves, and 
adds in its course to the bulk of the stem and the 
growth of the roots. Alburnum is also deposited 
in the stem of the plant, below the proper leaves, as 
it was previously below the seed-leaves ; atid from 
this spring other ascending vessels, which give ex- 
istence to, and feed, other leaves and buds." 



CHAPTER XIII. 

THE DISEASES OF FRUIT-BEARING PLANTS. 

I. GENERAL OBSERVATIONS BERKELEY'S THEORY OP CLASSIFICATION 

WEIGMANN CAUSES OF DISEASE — INSECTS. §11. DISEASES OF 

THE APPLE OP THE LEAP — FALL OF THE LEAF FUNGI — CLADOS 

PORIUM DENDRITICUM, CERATITES, RAESTELIA INSECTS — APPLE- 
TREE LOUSE, COMMON APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR, THE OAK-TREE CAT- 
ERPILLAR, THE VAPORER MOTH, THE PALMER WORM, THE HAG MOTH, 
THE UNICORN MOTH, THE CANKER WORM, THE HANDMAID MOTH, THE 
DOTTED APPLE-LEAP WORM,* OP THE FRUIT AND FLOWER — STERIL- 
ITY — IMMATURITY OF THE FRUIT INSECTS THE SAW-FLY, THE 

MIDGE, THE CODLING MOTH, THE ROSE-BUG J OP THE STEM INSECTS 

THE GOAT MOTH, THE COMMON BORF.R, ROOT-BLIGHT INSECT, THE 

SNAPPING BEETLE, THE BARK LOUSE, THE LOCUST OP THE SEVEN- 
TEENTH year; OP THE TREE GENERALLY — PROFUSION OF SAP, 
HUNGER, STAGNATION FROM TRANSPLANTATION, CANKER, FREEZING, 
SPLITTING, WIND SHAKES, DROPSY, SUN-STROKES, WOUNDS, LICHENS, 

VITIATION OF THE SAP. § III. DISEASES OP THE PEAR OF THE 

LEAF — AMERICAN PEAR BLIGHT — INSECTS — THE GOLDSMITH BEETLE, 
THE RED MITE, THE FLY, THE LYDA, THE ASTYAGES, THE HISPA 
QUADRATA, FUNGI, DISCOLORATIONS ; OP THE FRUIT AND FLOWER — 
ROTTING AT THE CORE, INDURATION, LOSS OP BLOOM, ETC. ; OF THE 
STEM — ROOT BLIGHT — INSECTS — THE BLIGHT BEETLE, THE BARK 
LOUSE, FUNGI, ETC. § IV. DISEASES OF THE PEACH — THE DOTTED 
APPLE-LEAF WORM, PREMATURE FALL OP THE FRUIT, THE BORER, 
GUMMING, ETC. § V. DISEASES OF THE PLU3I — PLUM LOUSE, CUR- 
CULIO, THE PLUM WART, ETC. § VI. DISEASES OP THE CHERRY — THE 
LOUSE, THE MAY BEETLE, ETC. § VII. DISEASES OP THE GOOSEBERRY 

— THE CATERPILLAR, THE SWALLOW-TAILED MOTH, THE MIDGE, THE 

MILDEW, ETC. § VIII. DISEASES OF THE CURRANT PALL OF THE 

LEAF, THE BORER, ETC. § IX. DISEASES OF THE RASPBERRY — THE 
GRUB, ETC. § X. DISEASES OP THE VINE — OP THE LEAF — INSECTS 

— THE VINE PLUME, THE SAW-FLY, THE ANOMOLA VITIS, THE SPOTTED 



420 GENERAL OBSERVATION'S. 

BEETLE, THE PYKALIS, THE PROCRIS AMERICANA, THE HALTICA CHALT- 
BEA, THE LEAF HOPPER, THE BOMBYX QUATA, THE PHILAMPELUS, 
THE CHOBROCAMEPA, THE KHYNCHITIS, PUNGI, COMMON MILDEW, ERY- 
SIPHE, BOTRYTIS ; OF THE FRUIT AND FLOWER — THE ROSE-BUG, 
SHANKING. 

§ 1. — GENERAL OBSERVATIONS. 

The diseases of plants have never received the 
attention which they deserve. Of latter years in- 
vestigation has been directed to insects injurious to 
vegetation ; but this has been done more in relation 
to entomology than to pathology. We had de- 
scribed a great number of diseases affecting fruit 
trees, and had classified them in such a manner as 
we had hoped might contribute to the progress of 
vegetable pathology, when we discovered that its 
introduction to this volume would increase its size 
beyond proper proportion. Therefore we are con- 
strained to retain many of the results of our inves- 
tigation on this topic, which we may hereafter issue 
in a separate form. In this chapter we insert only 
some leading facts on the more common diseases. 
Even these we must treat with special regard to 
practice, omitting, for the most part, those novelties 
and freaks of nature which should be noticed in a 
full pathological treatise. 

We shall not confine ourselves to a strictly philo- 
sophical method ; because, in the cultivation of some 
plants, the very state which we desire to induce is 
one of disease, provided this be considered as a de- 
parture from the normal type. For instance, the 



CLASSIFICATION OF DISEASES. 421 

enlargement of the flesh of a fruit, the entire or 
partial absence of seed, are the results of disease, 
strictly considered ; and yet these conditions are 
very desirable in fruit culture. Therefore, practically, 
we will regard as disease whatever is unfavorable to 
the growth of the plant for the purpose intended. 
This view is taken by Mr. Berkeley, of England, who 
defines disease as " a deviation from the normal con- 
dition of species." He treats the subject practically 
only as it is unfavorable to these deviations from 
nature produced by cultivation. 

Species have no natural tendency to disease, be- 
cause this might destroy them ; yet individuals or 
varieties have such a tendency, which they mani- 
fest in whatever condition they may be placed, and 
which they transmit to their offspring. 

Berkeley thus classifies diseases : Internal, or Con- 
stitutional; External, or Accidental; Doubtful, or 
Conjectural. Weigmann arranged them thus : Those 
which affect the organs of Nutrition, of Respiration, 
and of Reproduction. But we shall adopt a classifi- 
cation better suited to the object of this chapter, 
and shall speak of the diseases of different species 
of fruit according to the part of the plant which 
they affect. This arrangement will enable the fruit- 
grower to avail himself readily of the results of our 
investigation. 

While far the larger part of the diseases of plants 
may be rather mechanical and accidental than con- 
36 



422 CONSTITUTIONAL DISEASE. 

stitutional^yet there is a large class of the latter which 
have not been sufficiently studied to be described 
in detail. They are undoubtedly those which result 
from causes analogous to inflammation in the animal 
system, taking that term in its largest acceptation ; 
yet their proportion is small. In some cases, during 
the inflamed condition of the organ there is an in- 
creased degree of heat, like that so often accompany- 
ing the same state in animals ; while in other cases 
no difference in the temperature is perceptible.-^ M. 
Huber found when the heat of the atmosphere stood 
at twenty-one degrees centigrade, that the instrument, 
surrounded with spadices of the arum cordipolium, 
during the process of fecundation, rose as high as 
forty-two degrees. While plants have not as definite 
a form as animals, and it is therefore more difficult 
to detect malformation, yet they exhibit a peculiar 
sensitiveness to external influences during their 
growing season. 

Mons. J. De Jonghe, of Brussels, states the causes 
which produce disease in fruit trees as follows : ^ 

1st. Constitutional iveahiess of the variety. Some 
sorts are weak because the conditions in which they 
are placed are unfavorable ; perhaps they originated 
in a warmer region, and the severity or vicissitudes 
of the climate induces disease. Other varieties are 

1 Gross's Elements of Pathological Anatomy. 

2 In a paper published in " Gardeners' Chronicle," vol. for 1857. 



CAUSES OF DISEASE. 423 

constitutionally weak. This, according to Dr. Van 
Mons, is owing to a diseased state of the parent at 
the formation of the seed. 

2d. The attacks of insects^ induced hy a state of 
iveahiess. Many insects attack more readily a weak 
tree, and, feeding upon its vitiated sap, decrease its 
strength, and cause ultimately its death. 

3d. The influence of a poor stock on which the tree 
is grafted. As these stocks are seedling plants, they 
of course vary as much in constitution as the culti- 
vated sorts. If the stock be naturally weak, the 
scion inserted therein partakes of this weakness, and 
seldom attains full size ; while, if the stock be con- 
stitutionally strong and robust, and the scion insert- 
ed therein weak, the vigor of the former will over- 
come the weakness of the latter. This accounts 
not only for the varying strength, but for the differ- 
ence in the quality of trees of the same variety, and 
under the same conditions of culture. 

4th. The use of improper scions. Fruitfulness is 
often delayed by using scions from young undevel- 
oped trees ; or weakness may be produced by the 
use of those from an old and decrepid tree. If pos- 
sible, the scions should be taken from a tree which 
has just commenced to bear, and is in the prime of 
life. 

5th. Bad soil. If the soil is cold, however great 
may be the constitutional vigor of the tree, canker, 
or some other disease will, sooner or later, appear. 



424 WEAKNESS. 

But if the earth is warm, yet exhausted, the roots 
do not find sufficient food, and weakness ensues. 

6th. Improper management. If the tree has been 
planted too deep or too shallow, the roots not 
properly spread out in planting, the pruning inju- 
dicious, or the cultivation of the soil during the 
summer insufficient, the eff'ect will be for the time 
to weaken the tree, and, it may be, permanently to 
injure it. 

7th. Accident. Contusion, gnawing by animals, 
sun-strokes, or cutting the roots severely with the 
plough, may prevent the tree from becoming vigor- 
ous. 

But there are many other causes of weakness 
besides those above mentioned, such as superabun- 
dant production. Yet weakness is not always the 
cause of the diseased action, although it may often 
produce it. But there are multitudes of maladies, 
where this is only the effect of the disease. A par- 
asite may have been at work for years, sapping at 
the life of the tree, before its results are visible 
weakness. Some insects attack a tree when in 
full vigor, — the apple-tree caterpillar, or the canker- 
worm, — and they soon reduce the tree from vigor to 
debility. 

But we are too much accustomed to consider all 
insects as our enemies. If they cross our path, our 
first impulse is to crush them ; if one of them falls 
upon us, our flesh crawls with repugnance. What 



THE LIFE OF AN INSECT. 425 

is more mortifying to a host, disgusting to his guest, 
or disheartening to the amateur, than to discover a 
writhing worm wounded by his teeth in a fruit which 
the sun has painted with the image of God's glory, 
and to which the morning breezes have imparted a 
delightful fragrance, and from which he antici|)ated 
an almost ambrosial morsel ? While some insects, 
destructive to our fruit, are real enemies, others 
are true friends and valuable allies, destroying 
the former. Insects cause a number of diseases, 
.and we will consider briefly a few facts respecting 
them. 

The life of an insect is divided into three periods. 
The first state is that in which it is hatched, then 
called a larva, and is wingless ; it may be a maggot 
destitute of legs and sight ; a caterpillar or grub. 
The latter has six legs, sometimes with an additional 
pair of false legs attached to the posterior segment 
of the body. The caterpillar has six true legs, like 
the grub, and several pairs of false legs, amounting 
altogether to from ten to sixteen. 

From this state, in which it feeds enormously, and 
grows very fast, it passes to the second state. In 
this it is called a pupa, or chrysalid. The latter is 
distinguished by the gilt spots. In this state some 
insects eat, and are active ; but most of them are 
dormant, and enclosed in a cocoon. 

In the third state they are generally provided 
with wings. The females deposit their eggs, and 
36* 



426 COLEOPTERA, ORTHOPTERA, NEUROPTERA. 

die. In the first of these states they do the most 
injury. 

The following description of the orders of insects 
was suggested by those of Burmeister, Harris, and 
Glover. 

1. Coleoptera — Beetles. These undergo a perfect 
change of form, as described above. They have a 
mouth, furnished with jaws formed for biting ; two 
thick, wiry covers, meeting in a straight line on the 
top of the back ; and two filmy wings underneath 
them, folded transversely. The larvae are grubs; 
the pupae with wings and legs distinct and uncon- 
fined. 

2. Orthoptera — Cockroaches, crickets, grasshop- 
pers, straight-winged insects. These have only an 
imperfect change of form ; and in their mature state 
are like grasshoppers. They have a mouth like 
the preceding, furnished with jaws for biting or 
masticating; two thick, opaque upper wings, over- 
lapping a little on the back ; and two larger, thin 
wings, folded in plaits, like a fan. The larvae and 
pupae are active, but wingless. 

3. Neuroptera — Net- veined insects. These have 
a perfect change of form : the mouth is furnished 
with jaws for biting. They have four wings, of 



LEPIDOPTERA, HEMIPTERA, DIPTERA. 427 

similar texture, of which the hinder are the largest, 
with narrow, meshed netted veins. 

4. Lepidoptera — Butterflies and moths. These 
undergo a perfect change of form ; have a mouth 
with a spiral trunk, furnished with a piercer, or 
sucker, and not capable of biting; four wings, of 
similar texture, wholly or only partly covered with 
fine dust-like scales ; the larvae are caterpillars, and 
have six true legs, and from four to ten fleshy pro- 
legs ; pupae, with the cases of the wings and of the 
legs indistinct, and soldered to the breast. 

5. Hemiptera — Bugs, locusts, plant-lice. These 
have an imperfect change of form. The mouth is 
armed with a beak, furnished with a piercer, or 
sucker, and not capable of biting. They have four 
wdngs, generally standing up, when at rest, like the 
roof of a house, and frequently all of the same mem- 
braneous texture. The larvae and pupae are nearly 
like the adult insect, but are wanting in wings. 

6. Diptera — Mosquitos, gnats, and flies. These 
undergo a perfect change of form ; the mouth has 
a proboscis for sucking, sometimes having small 
lancet-like appendages for piercing concealed inside 
the trunk, as in the horse-fly. They have two 
naked, transparent wings, and in place of the two 
hind wings a slender stalk-like appendage on each 



428 DISEASES OF THE APPLE. 

side ; this terminates with a button, or knob-like 
end. The larvae are maggots without feet, and 
with the breathing-holes generally in the hinder 
extremity of the body. The pupae are mostly in- 
cased in the dried skins of the larvae ; sometimes, 
however, they are naked, in which case the wings 
and the legs are visible, and are more or less free 
or unconfined. 

7. Hymenoptera. These insects have a perfect 
change of form. Their mouth is armed with dis- 
tinct mandibles, or jaws, and also has a ligula, 
tongue, or proboscis for suction. They have four 
membraneous wings, divided into large cells. The 
larvae are mostly maggot-like, or slug-like; that 
of some species are caterpillar-like pupae, with legs 
and wings unconfined. 

§ II. DISEASES OF THE APPLE. 

I. Those affectin-g the Leaf. ' 1. The fall of 
the leaf — Phylloptosis. In most plants there is a 
point of articulation between the leaf-stock and the 
wood, but not always. Nearly all the plants which 
come under our notice in this work possess such a 
junction. When the leaf is about to fall, a chemical 
change takes place in the chlorophyl, which gives 
the green color to plants, — a change by which they 
assume the hue so familiar to us as that of autumn. 
Thus the leaf dies, and is no longer of any value to 
the tree. 



PREMATURE FALL OF THE LEAF. 429 

Dr. Schacht describes this more in detail. He 
says, " The cells at the place of separation are cork, 
and the scar is subsequently covered with it. The 
transmission of sap is consequently impeded, and at 
length entirely cut off, insomuch that the leaf hangs 
loose, and finally falls." 

But, with much reason, Dr. Berkeley contends 
that this is not the cause of the phenomenon, but 
only an effect, by which these cells endeavor to 
cover the live wood of the tree in such a manner as 
to prevent the transmission of any morbid matter. 
This transmission he often observed to be the cause 
of canker. The fall of the flower and the fruit he 
considered as belonging to the same class of phe- 
nomena. It may be said that, in the case of a fruit, 
death has not taken place ; but it will be seen, wpon 
a moment's reflection, that as far as its relation to 
the tree is concerned, the fruit has really ceased to 
live as soon as it stops drawing nutriment from the 
tree. " The parts have all arrived at maturity, and 
therefore neither require any more food from the 
mother plant, nor are they in a condition to make 
any further interchange," (fermentation having 
probably commenced) " and separation takes place. 
The fall of the leaf, considered as a disease, is when 
this phenomenon takes place at an improper time, 
and results either from some constitutional or 
accidental cause." 

The Flemish Beauty and the Paradise d'Automne 



430 THE PRESENCE OF FUNGI. 

pears may be cited as examples of this disease result- 
ing from the first of these causes. These drop their 
foliage oftentimes before the fruit is sufficiently 
mature to pluck from the tree. This makes the 
fruit less in size and inferior in quality. 

Among the varieties of the currant, the E,ed 
Dutch is, especially in this country, liable to shed 
its foliage prematurely, in which case the fruit 
shrivels and dries up ; or, if gathered, possesses a 
peculiar acidity, showing that the saccharine fer- 
mentation had scarcely commenced. While this 
is the character of the Eed Dutch, some varieties, 
like La Versaillaise, retain their foliage. This in- 
creases the size of the fruit, and its adhesion to the 
bush. 

2. The presence of fungi, Mr. Berkeley, in a re- 
view of the work of Mons. Muger on the causes 
which induce fungi, states them as follows : 

(1) Fungi always originate on plants which are 
young and full of sap ; and hence it is in spring 
that they are found on the young and tender parts. 

(2) Young shoots of trees are more liable to be 
attacked. 

(3) Younger trees are more predisposed than 
those which are older. Many species occur in 
young plantations, which are rarely found in those 
of older growth. 

(4) Galls are frequently covered with fungi. 



CLADOSPORIUM DENDPJTICUM. 431 

(5) The lower branches are more affected than 
the upper, and the propagation of the parasite takes 
place from the base to the summit. 

(6) Land too highly manured induces rust. 
Among the occasional causes producing fungi 

are — 

(1) An atmosphere habitually charged with mois- 
ture. 

(2) Absence of light. 

(3) Sudden changes in the atmosphere, as a tran- 
sition from heat to cold, or from a dry to a moist 
state. 

(4) Long-continued drought. 

(5) Crow^ded growth. 

(6) Plants with creeping stems. 

(7) Leaves soiled with earth, or other impurities. 

(8) Changes of climate, causing corresponding 
changes in the development of the plant. 

(9) Liundation. 

Of Fungi, these kinds deserve special notice — 
(1) Claclosporium dendriiicum. This fungus at- 
tacks not only the leaves, but also the fruit of the 
apple and pear. It completely exhausts the foliage, 
spreading over it, and causing black spots which, 
in the fruit, often produce cracks. Those caused 
by fungus must be distinguished, however, from 
those cracks caused by a sudden and superabundant 
flow of sap. This fungus is very persistent, and 
seldom leaves a tree in which it has once obtained 



432 CERATITES, RAESTELIA. 

a sure lodgement. Some vegetable physiologists 
have even thought it was transmitted to the next 
generation by the seed. 

Like the species Botrytis, it does not work upon 
the surface, but beneath it ; and the disease is on 
that account not so easily exterminated as those 
which result from fungi, and run upon the surface. 
The only alleviant for the disease is to gather all 
the leaves after they have fallen, and burn them. 
At the same time the whole tree should be washed 
with a mixture of sulphur and lime-water, as recom- 
mended for mildew on the vine (Oidium Tuckerii). 
Thus, whatever spores may have been deposited on 
the buds and wood will be destroyed. 

(2) Ceratites. This fungus attacks the apple, pear, 
and quince. It more often appears upon the pear, 
not only upon its leaf, but also on its fruit. This 
has a single lobe at the orifice of the peridium, 
from which the spores escape for reproduction 
i^Berkelei/). 

(3) Raestelia. This fungus has a number of 
lobes, all connected together, so as to form a little 
cage, through the interstices of which the spores 
escape. When a pear tree is once affected by this 
pest, it seldom escapes its influence in future years ; 
on the contrary, the evil generally increases, spread- 
ing to every neighboring tree, and thus pro23agating 
itself indefinitely. The better plan is to pick the 
leaves which are infected, as soon as the orange-col' 



THE APPLE-TREE LOUSE. 433 

ored, thickened spots appear, and before the spores 
are developed. [Berkeley) 

3. Insects. (1) Apple-tree Louse — Aphis mali. 
This is a small, green insect, which crowds upon the 
tips of the young shoots, and of the leaves. It 
sucks the juice of the tree, and causes the leaf to 
curl under. This provides it with a shelter from 
the dew and rain. It is very prolific. In the 
autumn the male and female produce eggs, which, 
during the winter, are laid in the crevices of the 
bark. The females are hatched early in the spring, 
and arrive at maturity in a few days. Without any 
intercourse with those of the opposite sex in this 
generation, they give birth to living young, bringing 
forth about two daily for a period of two or three 
weeks. The young soon become parents, and they 
are thus multiplied almost inconceivably. From 
twenty to forty generations are produced in a single 
season. Mr. Curtis states that, from a single eg^^ in 
seven generations, seven hundred and twenty-nine 
millions of lice will be bred, if unmolested ; and if 
they all lived the allotted time, by autumn every- 
thing upon the face of the earth would be covered 
with them. 

On this account it is a source of gratitude that 
Providence has given this insect so many enemies ; 
perhaps no other has an equal number. These are 
wasps denominated Crabonidae, and a number of 
flies called golden-eyed and lace-winged. But one of 
37 



434 COMMON APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR. 

its most active enemies is the common lady-bug. 
This bug grasps the lice, and sucks out all their 
juices, leavmg nothing but the skin. But while they 
have so many enemies, they also have friends and 
protectors. These are large black or reddish ants, 
w^hich run over their backs and tickle them, induc- 
ing them to exude a drop of sweet fluid, which the 
ant consumes. The lice do not seem to flourish as 
well where the ants are not their attendants. 

As these insects attack only the tips of the 
shootSj where the skin is young and tender, the best 
method of destroying them, if the tree is small, is 
to immerse the shoot in a pail of water in which 
a piece of whale-oil soap of the size of the fist has 
been dissolved [Fitch). 

(2) Common Apple-tree Caterpillar — Clisiocampa 
Americana. The territory which is the theatre of 
operations for this worm is extensive. Although it 
can subsist upon the leaf of almost any species of 
the order of Eosaceae, yet it always chooses first 
the wild cherry, then the apple. Dr. Fitch, of New 
York, attached nests of them to trees and bushes 
of various kinds, and found, while they generally 
existed, that they did by no means flourish, and did 
not become strong enough to spin cocoons. The 
seasons which are the most propitious for fruit, are 
also for the development of these as well as of other 
insects. This is a sage provision ; otherwise our 
whole crop might be destroyed in an unfavorable 



COMMON APPLE-TREE CATERPILLAR. 435 

year, while in seasons of abundance we can afford 
to lose a portion. The eggs are placed in a cluster, 
forming a ring about the twig of three-quarters of 
an inch in length. In one of these belts is at least 
three hundred eggs — the product of one female. 
They are deposited early in July, and remain until 
the latter part of the next April or first of May, 
when they begin to hatch. The young larvae at 
first feed upon the glutinous matter which sur- 
rounds and covers the eggs ; but when they have 
gained sufficient strength, they begin to forage upon 
the leaves. Each one, as he travels, spins a thread, 
attaches it to the bark, which secures his foothold. 
When he arrives at a fork in the limbs, he com- 
mences the dwelling by spinning threads in every 
direction. These caterpillars, having eaten suffi- 
cient, repose upon the outer surface of their netting. 
"When others return, they spin another net over 
these, and walk over those which are asleep. Thus 
a nest consists of several of these nets, one over the 
other, with space enough between them to allow the 
passage of the insect. 

When they first come forth from the egg they 
are not more than one-tenth of an inch in leno^th. 
But they throw off their skins five or six times, and 
at each change become larger. They seem to be 
destitute of sense to guide them toward their food. 
They will sometimes pass, and almost touch fresh 
leaves, when they are half starved, without noticing 



436 THE OAK-TREE CATERPILLAR. 

them. Neither do they have any mode of commu- 
nicating information to their companions in regard 
to food. One hungry worm after another examines 
the end of every twig upon a limb unsuccessfully for 
food ; and, returning, they meet others going out 
upon the same errand. They take daily three 
meals, — one in the morning, another in the after- 
noon, and a third at night. Each worm will con- 
sume about two leaves per diem ; and as each nest 
contains about three hundred individuals, they will 
destroy at least six hundred leaves daily. In the 
early part of June they separate, and select some 
retreat where they spin their cocoons. They repose 
about three weeks in the pupa state ; and early in 
July they pair and deposit their eggs. At this time 
they are the dingy, dusty moths which flutter about 
the lights in the evenings. If these insects are un- 
molested, they will often entirely strip the tree of 
foliage. 

The best method of preventing their ravages is to 
take the nests from the trees with the hands, imme- 
diately after their appearance, and to stamp them so 
as to crush the young. If they are merely thrown 
upon the ground, they will soon crawl up again, 
and resume their attacks upon the same, or another 
tree (Fitch). 

(3) The Oak-tree Caterpillar — Clisiocampa si/lva- 
tica. This caterpillar attacks the apple and the 
oak. It not only eats the leaves of the former, but 



THE VAPORER MOTH. 437 

gnaws the stem of the fruit, making it fall to the 
ground. It is found generally in the more southern 
parts of our country. It makes its appearance a 
little later in the season than the common cater- 
pillar, and its nest is attached to the sides of the 
tree, instead of to the fork of the limbs. In other 
respects, it is very much like those in the preced- 
ing description. 

There are various insects which prey upon this 
caterpillar in the pupa state. Some of them spin 
small cocoons upon the larva, and consume the 
pupa. As in respect to the preceding, it is often 
necessary to destroy the nest several times, as a 
portion of the worms will be foraging, who will re- 
construct their abode on their return [Fitch). 

(4) The Vcqwi^er Moth — Orgyia leucostigma. The 
caterpillar of this moth " is slender, with pale yellow 
hairs and tufts, and black pencil-marks ; its head, 
and two small protuberances on the hind part of 
the back, are bright coral red." It is about one 
inch in length, has sixteen feet, and is very beauti- 
ful in its appearance. Among the fruits, it feeds 
upon the leaves of the apple and the plum during 
the month of July. It is not gregarious, but lives 
solitary, and eats only the soft parts of the leaf and 
the smaller ribs. Their cocoons which are to pro- 
duce females are spun, in the latter part of this 
month, to twigs and limbs, while those from which 

the male moths are to be hatched are often attached 
37# 



438 THE VAPORER MOTH. 

to fences. Two leaves are often drawn together, and 
tied by their threads, to form the cocoon of the 
former. The cocoons of the females are always 
placed where the eggs are to be deposited. The 
implantation of this instinct is a wise provision, 
because the females are wingless. 

Early in August the moth appears. Its color is 
dark brown, with very few spots or streaks. The 
flight of the male is peculiar, made up of short 
jerks. The body of the female is at first very thick 
and unwieldy, but, after the deposition of her egg, 
appears slender and flabby ; and she soon becomes 
so weak as to drop to the ground and perish. The 
number of her eggs is from one hundred to two 
hundred. They are placed upon the exterior of the 
cocoon just vacated, where they are covered with a 
frothy matter, which glues them together, and pre- 
vents their destruction by birds. 

The caterpillar, however, is not without enemies. 
It is attacked by a very small, bee-like insect, that 
punctures its skin and inserts an egg, soon hatch- 
ing a maggot, which feeds upon the fatty matter of 
the caterpillar, and finally kills it. 

The vaporer moth can easily be destroyed, be- 
cause the cocoon of the female, upon which the eggs 
have been placed, can be readily distinguished, when 
the leaves have fallen, by the prominence of the 
dry leaf forming a part of it. They should then be 
gathered and burned (Fitch). 



THE PALMER WORM. 439 

(5) The Palmer Worm — Chaetochilus pometellus : 
Harris. There seems to be seasons when this 
insect is very destructive. Generally they make 
their appearance only in small numbers ; when in 
quantity, their numbers are prodigious, and they 
destroy all the foliage upon a tree in an almost in- 
credibly short space of time. They prove most 
injurious after a hot, dry season, when the orchards 
which they attack appear as though fire had gone 
over them. If an infested tree is shaken, hundreds 
of them let themselves down to the ground by a 
fine thread. Their attacks are not confined to the 
leaves, but also extend to the fruit. They are very 
variable in color ; and this circumstance has given 
rise to their division into several species ; but spe- 
cific difi'erence does not, probably, exist. Their 
bodies have thirteen segments, and sixteen feet. 
Their general color is greenish yellow ; but a shade 
of pink, or a tendency to white, is often observed 
among them. They have upon them seveml small 
black dots, each giving rise to a single hair. Where 
they exist in small number, they spin their cocoons 
upon leaves ; but where they are numerous they so 
completely destroy the foliage that this becomes 
impossible, and they take refuge under dead leaves, 
or some other material upon the surface of the 
ground, or in any secure position. Their cocoon is 
very superficial, when compared with that of some 
other insects, as they remain in it a very short time. 



440 THE HAG MOTH. 

In ten or twelve days, or about the middle of July, 
the moth appears. This worm is attacked by a 
parasitic insect, which feeds upon it until it has 
attained its growth, and then perforates the skin of 
the palmer worm, and spins its own cocoon. Of 
course it kills the worm upon which it has preyed. 
The most effectual method for the destruction of 
the palmer worm is to syringe the tree, by means of 
a garden engine, with a strong solution of whale- 
oil soap. Heavy showers dislodge the worm ; and 
it is therefore only in a season of long drought that 
they can increase so as to become injurious to any 
great extent [Fitch). 

(6) The Hag Moth — Limacodes petheciwn : Smith. 
In its very slow motion, this resembles a slug. It 
attacks the apple and the cherry. Its color is brown, 
and it is covered with short, downy hairs. Its body 
is nearly oblong square, and about one inch in 
length. The moth appears in June, and the larvae 
consume the leaves until the middle of September 
(Harris). 

(7) The Unicorn Moth — Notodonta unicornis. This 
attacks both the apple and the plum. It is an inch 
or more in length, and is generally solitary in its 
habits. " The top of the fourth ring of this cater- 
pillar rises in the form of a long horn, a little slop- 
ing forward." The tail and hindermost legs are 
always raised, except in walking. Its head i^ large, 
and brown in color; the sides of the next two rings 



THE UNICORN MOTH. 441 

green ; and the rest of the body brown, variegated 
with white. It has two broods during the season ; 
but, as they are generally small in number, they 
seldom do sufficient injury to produce a noticeable 
effect [Harris). 

(8) The Canker Worm — Phalaena vernata : Peck. 
In the male moth of this species the atennae have 
a narrow, almost downy, edging on each side, 
scarcely perceptible to the naked eye. The wings 
are large and thin. It is ash-colored, variously 
marked with w^hite. The female is wingless ; the 
atennae short, slender, and naked. These insects 
rise from the ground, "^vhere they have undergone 
their transformation, in the autumn and winter in 
small numbers ; but the larger part of them do not 
come forth until about the middle of March. The 
females advance toward the nearest tree, and climb 
slowly up the trunk. The winged males flutter 
about, and accompany them. The female deposits 
upon the limbs of the tree from sixty to one hun- 
dred eggs, glues them together, and dies. These 
eggs hatch early in the succeeding May. The 
larvae attack generally only the foliage of the apple 
and the elm, but occasionally the cherry and the 
plum. These worms vary exceedingly in color, — 
from green to dusty brown, and blackish. At full 
size they are about an inch in length. 

A month after their appearance, they stop feed- 
ing, and leave the trees, creeping down the trunks 



442 THE CANKER WORM. 

or suspending themselves by threads. They then 
burrow in the soil to the depth of a few inches, and 
become transformed. They are prevented from 
spreading over any new tract of country very rap- 
idly, by the wingless condition of the female. They 
are exceedingly voracious during the period of their 
growth, often entirely depriving the tree of leaves. 

To prevent ravages of the larvae we should stop 
the female from ascending the tree. For this pur- 
pose various methods have been adopted. Strips 
of paper, covered with tar, have been used ; but the 
necessity of a frequent application renders this only 
a partial preventive. Boxes or troughs are some- 
time fitted around the tree, so that the female is 
obliged to make her way over them in ascending. 
These are filled with a noxious fluid, or some liquid 
which drowns the insects, and proves beneficial. 
The Messrs. Clapp, of Dorchester, Massachusetts, 
used this remedy when their orchard was troubled, 
and state that for a few evenings during the ascen- 
sion of the insect the boxes became so completely 
filled with moths that others travelled over the 
bodies of their dead and dying companions. 

The most simple and efficient remedy is to place 
a strip of zinc, four inches in width, around the tree, 
so that the upper edge shall grasp the tree tightly, 
and the lower stand out two inches from the trunk. 
Then all the little interstices between the upper 
edge and the tree should be stuffed to prevent their 



THE HANDMAID MOTH. 443 

ascent. They cannot pass over the lower edge, and 
therefore slide off and fall to the ground, to repeat 
the attempt until they become . aware of their ina- 
bility to reach the limbs. This collar must be made 
of zinc, and not of tin, for the latter will rust, and 
thus afford the worms access to the top of the tree. 
Orchards thus treated have been entirely free from 
these pests, while those in the immediate vicinity 
were entirely deprived of foliage. 

(9) The Handmaid Moth — Eumetopona ministra : 
Drury. This is one of the worst insects affecting 
the apple. It commences at the tip of the limb, and 
entirely strips the tree of foliage. Like the palmer 
worm, these seldom make their appearance in suffi- 
cient numbers to do any great harm. The caterpil- 
lars are yellow or black, feed while huddled together 
on the under surface of the leaves, and gnaw at the 
margin. If they are alarmed, they throw their tails 
at right angles to their bodies, and their heads up 
over their backs, and remain in this posture until 
the danger is past. They are from six to eight 
weeks in attaining their full size, and appear as 
moths about the middle of June. They then deposit 
from seventy to one hundred eggs, which are glued 
together on the surface of the leaf In the latter 
part of July, when the worm is hatched, it com- 
mences to consume the leaf In September it enters 
the soil to the depth of two or three inches. No 
effectual method for their destruction is known 



444 DISEASES AFFECTING THE FRUIT AND FLOWER. 

except that of plucking them off individually 
{Fitch). 

(10) Dotted Apple-leaf Worm — Brachytaenia mal- 
ana. This insect is of a pale green color, is dotted 
with white, and has fine whitish lines running lon- 
gitudinally. They make their appearance in the 
latter part of May, and attack the under surface of 
the foliage of the apple, cherry, and peach; and 
after their growth they spin a very peculiar and in- 
genious cocoon. They draw the edges of a leaf so 
as to perfectly enclose themselves, and thus provide 
a dwelling for the pupae. They are transformed 
into moths in July. They deposit their eggs in the 
leaves, and produce another generation the same 
season. This new race, having entered their cocoons, 
fall with the leaves, and come out as moths the next 
spring. But some of them, encouraged by the heat 
of the autumn, come forth, and hide themselves 
under the old bark, or in some such safe position, 
where they remain frozen all winter, and come forth 
in early spring. This insect, like many other spe- 
cies, seldom appears in sufficient numbers to do any 
very serious injury; but, when it does, the tree 
can be shaken, — a sheet having been spread under 
it, — and the worms gathered and burnt {Fitch), 

II. Diseases affecting the Fruit and Flower. 
1. Sterility. This is not always an injury to the cul- 
tivator of fruits, but is often a positive benefit. 



STERILITY. 445 

It denotes, not the non-production of fruit, but of 
seed, the entire or partial loss of which, though a 
disease strictly considered, is generally attended by 
the production of fruit, because the resources of the 
tree are not exhausted. The Vicar of Winkfield 
pear seldom produces perfect seed ; and hence it is 
a very regular and abundant bearer. There are 
some varieties of grapes which do not produce seed, 
and this is regarded as a point of excellence. 

But, in a practical view of sterility, it will be well 
to consider it only affecting the production of fruit. 
Though all the parts of the flower may be perfect, 
and proper fecundation, take place, and even an 
embryo be formed, yet the plant may be sterile as 
to seed from habitual abortion, which is especially 
liable to take place in those varieties in which the 
walls of the ovary are highly developed. Hence, 
in some of the finer varieties of pears, perfect seed 
is a comparatively rare product. As the properties 
which make the fruit valuable are altogether inde- 
pendent of the seed, it is sufhcient for all ordinary 
purposes if impregnation has taken place to such 
an extent as to insure the swelling of the sarcocarp 
or intermediate flesh. Many cases of sterility result 
from the fact that fertilization takes place only suf- 
ficient to stimulate temporarily the contents of the 
embryo sac and the fleshy walls of the fruit, but 
not sufficient to ensure its growth to maturity. 
Hence, after a time, the embryo ceases to grow, and 
38 



446 STERILITY. 

the sarcocarp withers. This is especially the case 
in stone fruits, as is well known to every cultivator, 
whose fruits so frequently drop just when they are 
undergoing the process of stoning. Meyer studied 
this subject as regards forced cherries. From a very 
early stage of growth he could predict, from a change 
in the external form, and sometimes from a peculiar 
intensity of color, what fruit would ultimately prove 
abortive. But the shrivelling of the embryo takes 
place previous to the peculiar elongation of the 
fruit {Berkeley/). 

The prevalence of raini/ or cloudy tveaiher at the 
time of flowering may prevent the style, or female 
element, from receiving the pollen. The anthers 
require dry weather in which to burst open, or 
dehisce, and throw forth their pollen. If this 
weather does not occur at the proper time, the style 
may fade, and its sensibility to the process of fecun- 
dation cease. Or, if the pollen has been already 
deposited, a heavy rain may wash it away before it 
has commenced its work. 

Upon this subject Dr. Berkeley remarks, that the 
secretion of viscous fluid, which is exuded from the 
surface of the style; and which develops the tubes 
that insert themselves down the style to the ovule 
from the pollen grains, is often washed off in rainy 
weather, so that even if the pollen falls upon the 
style afterwards, it produces no result. Sudden 
heat succeeding a fog or cloudy weather, he thinks 



STERILITY. 447 

one of the most powerful agents in drying up and 
destroying the delicate tissue of the blossoms ; and 
sometimes this takes place in flowers which have 
been impregnated, as well as those which have not. 
Such cases of failure are repeatedly noticed in this 
country, as well as in England. There is no doubt 
that sterility sometimes occurs from a superabun- 
dance of this viscous fluid. 

Fungi and insects often attack the organs of fruc- 
tification, and cause more or less injury, according 
to the stage of progress in which the blossom then is. 
Sterility is sometimes occasioned by injury of the 
embryo, before the time oihlo^^ova.hy extreme changes 
in the temperature. Those seasons which are usually 
called the most severe, are generally best suited to 
plants. A low degree of the thermometer is not 
necessarily injurious if it is regular, and not inter- 
mitted by warm seasons, which excite the bud and 
cause it to swell, and sometimes even to put forth 
blossom. If such seasons are succeeded by extreme 
cold, they destroy the embryo. Such extremes are 
not so liable to injure the bud in the early part 
of winter, because then it would not be natural for 
the bud to start ; but towards spring, when the sap 
is just beginning to flow, such changes are more 
serious. 

Sensitiveness to extremes is almost always con- 
fined to foreign fruits, and is never noticed in native 
varieties unless such extremes are very severe. 



448 STERILITY. 

The buds of apples are covered with thick scales, 
and these are lined with pubescence, which make 
them still less conductors of heat ; and therefore 
these are not so easily affected by the warm days in 
severely cold seasons. But the peach and the 
cherry are natives of a warmer climate, where, as 
such, a protection is unnecessary. Hence nature did 
not give them these peculiar properties. As species . 
never lose their specific character, it is impossible 
to raise a peach which shall have scales thick 
enough, or be coated with sufficient hair, to defend 
them from these vicissitudes. 

After an extreme of cold has just passed, and it 
is again comparatively warm so that decay can go 
on, a cultivator can easily determine whether the 
vitality of the buds is destroyed by cutting one 
smoothly in halves, and seeing whether there are 
any dark spots in the centre, since these denote the 
death of the embryo. 

" One of the ordinary causes of sterility," says 
Dr. Berkeley, " whether permanent or temporary, 
is the hypertrophy or absence of some particular part 
of the plant. The nutriment which should have 
been employed in the formation and perfection of 
the organs of fructification is thus diverted to some 
other purpose. These organs may be apparently 
perfect, and yet no impregnation take place, even 
though the pollen grains may germinate. It is 
possible that, in such cases, there is some deficiency 



HYPERTROPHY. 449 

of power in the ovules, or in the vegetable force, 
by which they are excited, and not in the pollen 
grains themselves ; — an inference supported by 
analogy in the animal kingdom." 

In the fruit tree this hypertrophy is often seen 
in the unnatural growth of wood, induced by a 
highly nitrogenous soil. The force of this growth 
is often so great, that if any fruit-buds are formed, 
they are changed into wood-buds the next spring, 
and shoots start from them. This disease can be 
remedied by severe summer pinching, as described 
in the chapter upon pruning, and by root-pruning, 
which will effectually check undue luxuriance. 
This condition is often induced by too severe and 
injudicious spring pruning. As was noticed in 
another chapter, the limbs which proceed from the 
buds at the base of the shoots do not produce fruit 
as readily as those from the terminus, or even at 
midway ; and, therefore, by pruning back to these 
at the base, the fruit-grower is constantly producing 
either partial or total sterility. 

In some cases sterility is caused by the monacious 
character of the plant (or the possession of only 
one of the sexes, the other being absent or sessile), 
and consequently by a defective fecundation, or 
none at all. This is particularly the case with 
strawberries. Some of our most valuable varieties 
are utterly unable to produce a large crop without 
the presence of other varieties in the line, or near 
38* 



450 IMMATURITY OF THE FRUIT. 

them, which have a superabundance of pollen, and 
can part with it for their benefit. The former are 
called pistillate, because the female element largely 
predominates ; while the latter are staminate, because 
the male element is the stronger. Sterility in a 
pistillate plant can easily be remedied by planting 
through the bed, or in an adjoining line, those which 
are staminate. 

Again: sterility often results from bad cultiva- 
tion, which allows the tree to produce too large a 
crop, and to exhaust itself in maturing its seed. 
The production of some varieties only once in two 
years is owing to the fact that the tree becomes so 
weak in maturing such an inordinate number of 
seeds, that no strength is left for the formation 
of fruit-buds in the autumn for the succeeding year. 
This can be prevented by judiciously thinning the 
fruit, which does not diminish the quantity ; for, as 
before mentioned, what exhausts the tree is the 
seed ; and therefore, by taking a part of it away, 
the fruit becomes larger, and the measure remains 
the same, with only a diminished nwnher of fruits. 

2. Immaturity of the fruit — Carpomosia: Ee. This 
is a condition of the fruit in which the cells are 
woody, and the juice acid, as it is before the com- 
mencement of the saccharine fermentation. It is 
impossible to ripen fruit when infected by this 
disease, which results from one of three causes: 
Firsts from excessive dampness and coldness of soil 



EFFECT OF LIGHT. 451 

during the season of growth. This may be reme- 
died by proper drainage ; secondly^ from gathering 
the fruit before saccharine fermentation has com- 
menced ; and, thirdly, from absorption of too much 
oxygen. This may generally be remedied by judi- 
cious pruning, which admits the light. A ray of 
light is composed of several colors, each of which 
has independent and peculiar qualities, and pro- 
duces distinct chemical results. By the union of 
two or more rays, compound colors may be pro- 
duced, which combine the effects of the rays com- 
posing them. Every vegetable cell has a nucleus, 
which, exposed to the light, takes some color, gen- 
erally green. Upon the skin of fruits these colors, 
changing from green to yellow, and then to brilliant 
red, seem to mark or produce chemical changes 
which result in the ripening of the fruit. When 
this change of color in the skin of the fruit does 
not take place, the fruit seldom ripens; or, if it 
does become mellow, the flavor will be very inferior, 
showing that the usual chemical changes have not 
been thoroughly performed. The amount of color 
necessary to a fruit to bring it to perfection varies, 
of course, in difl'erent varieties. The Rhode Island 
Greening apple, in its most highly colored state, is 
yet very pale when compared with a Baldwin only 
moderately so. Those fruits which require little col- 
or are generally peculiarly sensitive in regard to the 
least. Such is the Vicar of Winkfield pear, which 



452 PUNCTURE OF THE FRUIT BY THE SAW-FLY. 

never becomes very highly colored, and yet is 
scarcely edible unless it has some little shade of 
brown or red upon its cheek, when it becomes aro- 
matic and delicious. 

While this disease sometimes attacks the apple, 
yet it is more frequently noticed in the pear. 

3. Insects. (1) The puncture of the fruit hy the Apple 
Saw-fly — Tentredo testudinea. This insect makes its 
appearance during the last of June and first of July, 
when the apple is one-quarter or one-third grown, 
and causes the fruit to drop to the ground. If the 
apple is immediately examined, it will be found to 
contain the larva, or worm, which very soon escapes 
to the ground. The fly deposits its eg^ as early as 
the period of florescence. Its wings are light brown; 
its legs and body orange, with the exception of the 
upper surface, which is a glossy black. Its length 
is about five-eighths of an inch. The caterpillar, 
which appears as a borer, is of a pale orange color, 
having twenty legs, three pairs of them being tho- 
racic, six pairs of them short ventral, and one pair at 
the extremity. The larvae increase in size with the 
growth of the apple, eating the heart of the fruit, 
which at last causes it to drop. The only remedy 
for this serious malady is to pick up immediately 
the fruit which has fallen, and destroy the larvae 
before they have escaped, either by boiling them, 
or feeding them to some other animals. Some per- 



APPLE MIDGE AND CODLING MOTH. 453 

sons allow their swine to run in the orchard during 
this period, and pick up the apples as they drop 
( Westwood). 

(2) The Apple Midge — Molabrus mali. The flesh 
of an apple which has been attacked by this little 
insect becomes spongy and dry, with deep fissures 
perforating it. It is probable, although not alto- 
gether certain, that the fly deposits her eggs at the 
calyx, or flower-end of the fruit, and that the worm 
then perforates to the core, where it becomes a 
pupa. The dampness of the apple seems necessary 
to aid the fly in its transformation; as Mr. Fitch 
found that the exposure of the insect to the air re- 
sulted in the immediate arrest of its growth. They, 
of course, spin no cocoon in such a position, but 
surround themselves with a peculiar glutinous 
matter {Fitch). 

(3) The Codling Moth ■ — Tinea pomonella, Linn, 
Pyralis Pomana: Fabr. This moth appears the 
latter part of June. " The fore wings are crossed 
by numerous gray and brown lines, scalloped like 
the plumage of a bird ; and near the hind angle 
there is a large, oval, dark brown spot, the edges of 
which are of a bright copper color. The hind 
wings and abdomen are yellowish brown." It lays 
its eggs upon the calyx, or flower-end of the fruit ; 
the moth generally selects early varieties. The eggs 
hatch in a few days, and the worm burrows in the 
core, from which he bores a hole to the side of the 



454 THE ROSE BUG. 

apple ; through this he thrusts its fragments. They 
leave the ap23ie either before or immediately after 
it falls to the ground, so that it is then almost im- 
possible to destroy it. 

Dr. Trimble, of New York, found that many birds, 
such as the chickadee and the downy woodpecker, 
devoured these insects ; and although the worms 
are under the bark, where they have spun their 
cocoons, yet the latter of these birds seems to have 
a remarkable instinct for discovering their position, 
striking through the bark with its bill at the exact 
spot, bringing them forth and consuming them. He 
thought that the instinct of this worm, leading it to 
seek shelter for the winter in the old bark and in any 
old material, might be made a means of destroying 
it. " A most effectual remedy," he says, is " tying a 
hay rope two or three times around the trunk of the 
tree, when they seek refuge under this rope and 
can be destroyed, if it is taken off and burnt when 
winter approaches. The expense and trouble of 
such an operation is very trilling, and the experi- 
ment is certainly worth trying. 

(4) The Rose Bug — Macrodactijlus suhspinosiis : 
Fabr. These attack the fruit of the apple, grape, 
plum, cherry, and peach. They devour not only the 
fruit, but also the leaf and the blossom. They make 
their appearance about the middle of June, when 
they crowd in immense numbers upon the fruit or 
blossom and entirely consume them. They sometimes 



THE GOAT MOTH. 455 

appear in orchards year after year, and deprive 
them of every fruit. The beetle is only about one- 
third of an inch in length, and is covered with little 
scales, which cause it to appear as of a deep yellow 
color. After about a month it is not to be seen : the 
female has crawled into the soil, and deposited her 
eggs, which hatch in about three weeks ; the grub 
descends below the frost, and remains torpid during 
the winter. 

The dragon-fly and several sorts of birds destroy 
great quantities of this bug ; but when it appears 
in great numbers, these seem wholly insufficient. 
The only method of preventing its ravages is to 
pick it off by the hand, and shake it into a vessel 
of hot water. 

III. Diseases which affect the Stem of the 
Apple Tree. 1. Insects. (1) The horing of the Goat 
Moth — Cossus ligniperdu. This is an insect which 
attacks, especially, large trees of the apple. It bores 
holes into the trunk, and, by the admission of air and 
water, promotes the decay of the tree. The moth 
is about three inches in the spread of its fore wings, 
and is of a grayish-brown color, shading into that 
of a darker hue, and is covered with a quantity of 
black streaks, Avhich are very narrow and irregular. 
The posterior wings are darker, with more minute 
lines ; the thorax is yellow near the head, becoming 
lighter as it reaches the back, where there is a 
black bar. 



456 THE COMMON BORER. 

The head of the caterpillar of this moth is black ; 
the prevailing color of the body, lemon, with a slight 
pink tinge. The back is brownish ; and the first 
segment of the body has two black dots, and the 
skin has no hairs. It is about three inches in 
length, and very stout. The effects of its attack 
are to be seen in the decay of the ends of the 
branches, which gradually extends until the whole 
tree dies. The insect collects the chips which he 
has gnawed from the tree, and with these he pro- 
tects himself Inside of these he constructs his 
cocoon under the bark. The best time to hunt for 
and destroy him is when he is just emerging from 
the chrysalis state, and is coming forth from his 
burrow [Harris). 

(2) The common Ajpple-tree Borer — Sapercla hivittata: 
Say. " The winged beetle, which is from one-half 
to three-quarters of an inch long, covered with a 
white pubescence, and having three broad stripes 
above, makes its appearance early in June, and Hies 
only in the night. In the course of this and the 
following months the female deposits her eggs, one 
in a place, low down upon the bark, at or very near 
the surface of the earth. But when these beetles 
are numerous, some of their eggs are placed higher 
up, particularly in the axil of the lower limbs, or 
where they proceed from the trunks. From each of 
these eggs is hatched a minute maggot. It is white, 
with a yellowish tinge upon its head. It eats its 



THE COMMON BORER. 457 

way directly downwards in the bark, producing a 
discoloration. If the outer, dark-colored surface 
of the bark be scraped off with the knife the last 
of August, so as to expose the clear white bark 
beneath, as can easily be done without injury to the 
tree, wherever there is a young worm it can readily 
be detected. A blackish spot, a little larger than a 
kernel of wheat, will be discovered wherever an egg 
has been deposited ; and by cutting slightly into 
the bark, the worm will be found. It gradually 
works its way through the bark, increasing in size 
as it advances until it reaches the sap-wood. There 
it feeds upon the soft fibre, and forms a round, flat 
cavity. It keeps its burrow clean by pushing its 
excrement out of a small opening through the bark 
at its lower end. These castings resemble fine saw- 
dust, and enable one to detect the presence of the 
worm. 

" When it is half grown, it seems to become con- 
scious of the danger of its situation from wood- 
peckers and other birds, and gnaws a cylindrical 
retreat for itself in the solid heart-wood of the tree. 
The excrement now, instead of being ejected, is 
crowded into the hollow part at the bottom of the 
cavity. This hole runs first inward and then out- 
ward to the sap-wood, and is only covered from the 
external air by the bark. But, as though the cast- 
ings at the entrance were insufficient to keep out 

some marauding insect, it seems to turn itself around 
39 



458 THE APPLE-ROOT BLIGHT. 

in its hole, and tear down some of the woody fibre 
upon the sides, which it crowds also to the bottom. 
"While this is going on, its excrements are placed at 
the top of the passage, leaving a chamber, in which 
the insect turns around, enters the pupa state, and, 
at its close, bursts the bark covering at the top of 
its hole, and comes forth a beetle " {Fitch), 

Several methods of destroying these worms, or of 
preventing the deposition of their eggs, have been 
proposed ; of these we mention washing the trunk 
and lower limbs with strong soft soap at the time 
of the deposition of the eggs ; scraping the bark 
during the latter part of August, and discovering 
the young maggot before it has commenced to 
burrow, by the discoloration of the bark ; digging 
them out with a knife when the excrement is dis- 
covered, or any indication given of their presence ; 
running a tolerably flexible wire into the hole, and 
stabbing the grub. When this latter method has 
been efficient, it will be shown by the stained color 
of the wire when withdrawn. This borer is one of 
the greatest pests of the apple orchard, and needs 
constant attention. The woodpecker is one of its 
greatest enemies, and should, therefore, receive our 
protection. 

(3) The Apple-root Blight — Pemphigus Pyri : 
Fitch. Pemphigus Americanus : Walker. Trees 
affected by this disease lose their vigor, and their 
foliage becoms pale yellow. If this is not attributar 



THE APPLE-ROOT BLIGHT. 459 

ble to borers, or to some unfavorable condition of 
the soil, it very probably results from the attacks 
of the little woolly louse named above. 

In the autumn the female of this species pene- 
trates the earth, following down near a root, deposits 
her eggs, and dies. As these eggs hatch, the young 
insinuate their beaks to the liber of the roots, and 
draw from them the sap, upon which they subsist. 
This irritates the part, and induces a greater flow 
of sap to that point, and causes little excrescences to 
be formed upon the roots, from a very small size to 
that of a pea. It is very evident that these excres- 
cences must very seriously weaken the tree, if they 
increase to any extent. The larvae are almost in- 
visible to the naked eye, being not more than four 
hundredths of an inch in length. From the tip of 
the abdomen protrudes a short thread of " cotton-like 
matter, variously curled and crinkled. This renders 
them more perceptible. The insect afterwards be- 
come winged, attains a quarter of an inch in length, 
and is covered with a mass of white down." 

The disease which they produce is often seen in 
its primary stages in young trees as they come from 
the nursery, and can be detected by the excres- 
cences upon the roots. Thousands of trees have 
been uselessly thrown away as valueless when 
this has been found to be present. Dr. Fitch sug- 
gests that if these roots were immersed in, or 
washed with, a strong solution of soft soap, the in- 



460 THE BARK LOUSE. 

sect would be killed, and the tree soon recover from 
its temporary weakness [Fitch). 

(4) The Snapping Beetle — Chri/sohothris femorata : 
Fabr. This very much resembles the common 
borer, and preys upon the apple and peach. The 
worm is about one-half an inch in length ; greenish- 
black in color; and its burrow is flat, instead of 
round. It has a very powerful enemy in a little 
parasitic bee-like insect, about c ne-tenth of an inch 
in length. The female of this parasite probably 
discovers the borer when it is lying just beneath 
the bark, before it has commenced its burrow ; and, 
piercing the bark and the skin of the insect, it de- 
posits its egg, the larva from which is to subsist 
on it, and finally to destroy the borer. The same 
means may be used in this case as were with the 
common borer [Fitch). 

(5) The Bark Louse — Aspidiotus conchiformis : 
Gmelin. Coccus arhorum linearis : Modeer. Diaspis 
linearis: Costa. Although very small, this is one 
of the most injurious insects which attack the apple. 
It probes the bark, consumes the sap, checks the 
vigor of the tree, and, where it makes its appear- 
ance in considerable quantity (as is often the case), 
causes death in three or four years. 

Its appearance is that of a dark-colored, or black 
scale, resembling an oyster-shell in shape, adhering 
to the bark, and particularly attacking young trees. 
This scale is about one-eighth of an inch in length, 



THE LOCUST OF THE SEVENTEENTH YEAR. 461 

and is the remains of the female, who shelters the 
eggs which are placed beneath it. These eggs vary 
in number from twenty to one hundred, according 
to the health of the tree. Those which are the 
most vigorous have the greatest number. About the 
middle of May the eggs begin to hatch, and the 
larva to run about. It is pale yellow in color, has 
three pairs of legs, and appears upon the wood only 
as a minute dot. It has an enemy in a maggot which 
finds shelter beneath the scale, and feeds upon the 
eggs. This louse seems to be advancing westward, 
and is particularly injurious in the new districts, 
probably because it does not meet so many enemies. 

Two methods of destroying it are practised ; in 
one, the trees are thoroughly painted in early spring 
with tar and linseed oil, heated together, and applied 
warm. When this becomes dry it peels off, bring- 
ing the scale with it. In the other method, tobacco- 
leaf is boiled in strong lye until it is reduced to an 
impalpable pulp, and soft soap is mixed with it to 
make the mass about the consistency of thin paint ; 
the object being to obtain a preparation which will 
not be washed off by the first rain. The trees are 
first cut in, and the mixture applied with a paint- 
brush to every twig. This will destroy the insect, 
or prevent the deposition of eggs for the next 
season, so that an application once in two years will 
suffice {Fitch). 

(6) The effusion of sap caused hy the puncture of the 
39* 



462 PROFUSION OF SAP. 

wood hy the " locust of the seventeenth year " — Cicada 
septemdecim. This is a most remarkable beetle, ap- 
pearing only once in seventeen years. There are 
six or more broods of them in this country, which 
have their distinctly defined routes ; and while the 
length of time from the first to the second appear- 
ance of each brood is always seventeen years, yet 
these seasons are not identical in the different 
broods. One of them appeared in 1843 ; another 
in 1847. They utter a note considerably prolonged, 
the middle of which is piercingly shrill. They do 
not seem to be very discriminating as to the species 
of plant which they attack. Dr. Fitch, entomol- 
ogist to the State of New York, said that the tops 
of the forest trees for more than a hundred miles 
seemed as if they had been scorched by fire, a 
month after these beetles had left them. The injury 
was done by the deposition of the eggs. The female 
punctures the wood, making a cavity large enough 
to contain about twenty eggs, and continues to lay 
in this manner from four hundred to five hundred 
eggs. From these punctures the sap weeps, weak- 
ening the limbs, and often causing, ultimately, their 
death. The larvae penetrate the earth to a consid- 
erable depth, sucking the sap from the roots of all 
sorts of plants [Fitch), 

IV. Diseases which affect the Tree gener- 
ally. 1 Profusion of saj) — Profusio simplex. 



PROFUSION OF SAP. 463 

This is sometimes constitutional, but often er the 
result of cultivation. It becomes a disease when 
all the energies of the tree are directed to vigor, 
rendering the tree partially or wholly barren. It 
may be general ; or it may be confined to a part of 
the tree, which is robbing the remainder by the pro- 
duction of gourmands, or watery shoots. Or it may 
result from the growth of suckers from adventitious 
shoots at the base of the tree ; perhaps from the 
wild stock in which the scion or bud were inserted. 
When it is general, it may be produced by excessive 
manuring or by injudicious pruning. Profusion of 
sap seldom results from the former of these causes 
in the eastern part of this country, because the soil 
is of so poor a quality ; but it frequently occurs in 
the fertile soils of the West. 

As was remarked in the chapter upon pruning, a 
very severe cutting-back in the spring leaves the 
roots much stronger than the top. Therefore, as in 
this case, the roots are capable of supporting a much 
larger area of foliage than will remain to be supplied 
with sap after such a severe pruning. In the 
endeavor to restore the equilibrium, it will push all 
the remaining buds with great vigor ; and even the 
fruit-buds may be transformed, and throw shoots. 
Continuance of severe pruning of such trees will 
cause the disease to become more and more settled. 
The remedy is vigorous summer pinching, and root- 
pruning. These are described in the chapter upon 
" Pruning and Training." 



464 STARVATION. 

2. Stagnation of the saj), resulting from hunger — 
Stagnans effames. This is not the decrepitude occa- 
sioned by old age, but that which occurs when the 
tree is young, and should be in full vigor. It may re- 
sult from the barrenness of the soil in which the tree 
stands, the presence of stagnant water, or from a sub- 
stratum of poor soil near the surface, through which 
the roots cannot penetrate. From whichever of these 
it immediately results, the primary cause is insuffi- 
cient or improper food. When a tree has become pos- 
sessed with this disease, it ceases to grow ; the foliage 
is diminutive, and of a yellowish color. The bark 
adheres very closely to the tree, which, if it produces 
fruit, is of a most insignificant character. After this 
disease has become settled, it is incurable ; but in its 
earlier stages it is very susceptible to proper treat- 
ment. When simple barrenness of the soil is the cause, 
abundance of good, rich manure should be applied. 
Stagnant water can be removed by draining, and an 
impervious stratum broken up by proper subsoiling. 

3. Stagnation of the sap from transplantation — 
Stagnans elethargia. This disease is principally con- 
fined to trees which have been set late in the spring. 
If the season of planting is followed by drought, the 
tree does not burst its buds, although it is alive, be- 
cause the production of rootlets is prevented by the 
dryness of the soil. It can be prevented, and is 
sometimes remedied, by mulching the ground about 
the tree, and by moistening the stem. 



STAGNATION FROM TRANSPLANTATION. 465 

Mr. Berkeley, in a paper published in the Gar- 
deners' Chronicle, says : " Whe.re moisture has been 
long withheld from a plant, the vitality descends so 
low that it is unable to endure a sudden or extreme 
change. Under such circumstances, if w^ater is too 
rapidly admitted, it stagnates, and therefore reduces 
the quality of those supplies on which the develop- 
ment of buds or adventitious roots depend. This 
may cause decomposition. Or it may carry noxious 
matter into the circulation " (if the water was ap- 
plied at the roots) " in such abundance as to act as 
a putrefactive ferment upon tissues already in a 
weak and languid condition. If the foliage flags, 
the power of evaporation will also be diminished. 
Mr. Knight found that shading and moistening the 
bark of trees long removed from the soil was better 
than supplying water directly to the roots. The young 
and tender bark partially performs the functions of 
the leaves, and in some succulent plants supersedes 
them. By judicious moistening, the vitality of the 
cellular tissue is gradually restored to its former 
strength, and the consequent formation of new roots 
at length enables the plant to sustain itself under 
ordinary cultivation." 

4. Canker of the Apple Tree — Carcinocles mali. 
This disease is not confined to the apple, but is here 
more frequently seen. It attacks the pear, as well 
as almost all the cultivated fruits, and results, when 
not constitutional, from one of three causes. 



AQQ CANKER. 

(1) Excessive rain succeeding a long period of 
dry weather which had hardened the sap-vessels. 

(2) Severe pruning while the roots extended 
themselves, under high cultivation, and disturbed 
the equilibrium. 

(3) A sudden change of temperature. 

This malady is most likely to appear first where 
the tree has been bruised, or cut with the knife. 
When it results from excess of moisture in the soil, 
thorough draining is a most effectual preventive ; 
when from improper pruning, cutting the roots will 
restore the equilibrium ; but when from vicissitudes 
of temperature, it is entirely uncontrollable. This 
malady is not as common in the United States as in 
Great Britain, but nevertheless occasionally appears. 

Mr. Berkeley says: "I have before me some 
branches of the Golden Pippin apple, which, in the 
living portion, is still strong enough to bear very 
fine fruit, though the tree is evidently fast approach- 
ing the end of its existence. The fruit appears on 
twQ kinds of branches, equally fertile ; the one, tall 
spring twigs, grown with great rapidity ; the other 
stunted, more or less divaricate branchlets, whose 
growth has been extremely slow. Both are equally 
affected with canker, though not visibly, in the same 
way ; that upon the vigorous branches apparently 
growing downward and casting their thin bark, 
while the other perishes first at the base, and * de- 
prives the upper parts of nutriment. On closer 



CANKER. 467 

t 



inspection, however, the difference is only apparent ; 
for even the smooth twigs have decayed spots, 
involving the superior organs. 

"If the cankered branch be examined as soon as 
the mischief is visible, a vertical section through 
the pith generally reveals the point at which decay 
has commenced ; some bud, frequently a fruit-bud. 
The flowers, in the first instance, may not have set, 
on account of some one of the causes which usually 
produce sterility. The foot-stalks may have sep- 
arated from their point of attachment, leaving the 
bud in a state unfit for further vegetation. The 
young fruit may still remain withering on its matrix, 
which has not vitality enough to throw it off Either 
the matrix itself or the dry fruit decomposes as the 
season advances. The morbid matter is carried 
down to the tissues surrounding the pith. If the 
branch has strength enough to resist the infecting 
matter, the wound is soon covered over with fresh 
layers of wood, and no permanent injury results. 
On the contrary, if the constitution be weak, and 
the vitality low, the woody tissue perishes, and soon 
involves the bark which covers it, so that both are 
incapable of transmitting the nutritive fluids, and it 
perishes as if by a flash of lightning. 

" Where there is great weakness of constitution, 
it is obviously very difficult to contend against the 
disease. Something may be done by very careful 
inspection of the trees, and by the removal of every 
unhealthy spur" {Berkeley), 



468 DECAY. 

* 

5. Decay. There is a time when all vegetables 
must decay ; but this is often very much hastened 
by constitutional or accidental disease. The tree 
in a healthy state grows in circumference^ and 
throws off the old bark, replacing it by a layer of 
new beneath it: a similar process goes on in the 
wood. This is annually increased in thickness by 
layers upon its outside. The sap ascends from the 
roots to the foliage through the wood of the last 
two or three years, the latest being the most active ; 
and the sap, as it returns elaborated by the leaves, 
forms these new layers of wood and bark. 

In process of time the ducts of the new wood 
receive such a coating of woody fibre on their 
interior surface as to fill up the orifice through 
which the sap passed, and thus become useless. 
This old wood is now as dead as the old bark ; but, 
not being exposed to the air, it remains sound as 
long as it is not so exposed, and is useful, mechani- 
cally, in strengthening the structure of the tree. 
But if an accident breaks this outer covering of new 
wood, the air will be admitted, and the limb decay, 
spreading the disease to the very heart of the tree. 
Although this does not essentially weaken the nu- 
tritive power, yet the tree will not have proper 
mechanical support. 

The proper remedy for a tree thus diseased is to 
cut out carefully all the decayed parts, and fill the 
cavity with a cement made of sand or gravel, lime, 



FREEZING. 469 

and coarse stones or brickbats. This furnishes me- 
chanical support, and the tree may flourish as well 
as before. 

6. Freezing — Congelatio. Plants vary in their 
natural capability to endure frost. Late in the 
autumn, and early in winter, the tree is not easily 
stimulated ; and a severe frost, even after a warm 
season, does not necessarily injure the tree. But 
late in the winter, and early in the spring, when the 
energies of the tree are active^ a frost is very inju- 
rious ; and if the buds are swollen, or the tree in 
leaf, it is disastrous, possibly fatal ; because the tree 
is then full of fluids, expanding as they freeze, and 
the thin walls of the cells are thereby broken and 
destroyed. When these thaw, the sap runs out 
among the intercellular spaces, and deranges the 
whole circulation. From the decomposition of the 
stagnant sap it spreads decay through the whole plant. 

Duhamel and Buffbn maintain that frost-splits 
occur more frequently — " Aux expositions du Nord 
et du conchaut " — on exposures to the north than on 
other aspects, because they were colder. On the 
contrary, Ehrhart says : " Those trees or shrubs 
planted on the southern side of the heights suffered 
more than those on the north side." 

Dr. Caspary believed that these frost-clefts did not 
depend upon cold winds coming in any one direction, 
but upon injuries received, either from the decay of 
40 



470 FROST-CLEFTS. 

limbs, accidents, or the work of man. These inju- 
ries cause a mechanical weakness in that part. He 
had at first supposed that a thaw caused the clefts 
by the contraction of the outer layers, which were 
then too small to contain the inner, and therefore 
burst. But, upon observation, he found that they 
occurred in the severest cold, and closed upon the 
approach of a thaw. 

That these clefts were occasioned by freezing and 
thawing, was the theory of Gaudichaud. He exam- 
ines the conjecture of Goppert, that those that occur 
in the axils of the branches are to be attributed to 
the influence of wind. But he found that clefts 
seldom, if ever, occur here ; but are beneath the 
branch, in the toughest and strongest place : and 
that the wind, at the time of the clefts which he 
observed, was very gentle. 

They may have occurred from the outer layers be- 
ing reduced in volume by evaporation. Thus they 
were unable to endure the expansion of the inner 
layers not affected by this evaporation. This theory 
exploded on discovering that the moisture of the 
atmosphere, when the cleft took place, was greater 
than for some time preceding. The author states 
that De Vriese, in his " Principles of Vegetable 
Physiology," expresses the opinion that the sap 
rises in the winter, and that the cold splits the stem, 
and allows the juice to run out. But, as the tree is 
frozen to its centre, there can be no ascension of the 



FROST-CLEFTS. 471 

sap ; and there being no foliage, and in consequence 
no evaporation, this theory cannot be sustained. 
Besides, no sap runs from the clefts. The most 
popular theory attributes this phenomenon to ex- 
pansion in the act of freezing ; but, according to 
Brunner, ice reaches its greatest bulk at the moment 
of congelation. At thirty-two degrees Fahrenheit it 
acquires about one-eleventh of its bulk ; therefore, 
if a tree becomes cleft at all from this cause, it must 
be at this moment ; for, as the cold increases, Brun- 
ner found its volume to diminish. He observed that 
the linear contraction of ice is one twenty-six thou- 
sand seven hundredths for every degree Centigrade. 
But the clefts did not appear until the cold was 
below twenty-three degrees Fahrenheit ; so that the 
freezing of the sap could not have been the cause. 

Duhamel, BufFon, and Treviranus entertained the 
opinion that the stems are burst by the " volume 
acquired, on congelation, by a mass of moist, decayed 
wood, or an accumulation of sap in the interior of 
the tree." Although Dr. Caspary allows that such 
may sometimes cause a cleft, yet he had never seen 
an example of it. He had never found ice in the 
splits, and the decayed wood seemed to be dry. 
He finds the same difficulties to this theory as to 
the last : if they cleave for this reason, it should be 
at the moment of congelation. 

He thus sums up his observations: " The bursting 
takes place at night by severe frost, not less than 



472 FROST-CLEFTS. 

fifteen degrees Eeaumer (one and one-half degrees 
Fahrenheit). Remeaux has shown that the temper- 
ature of the concentric layers of wood by night in- 
creases from outside to inside. A very severe, sudden 
frost, that cools down the outer layers, must occasion 
an important difference in temperature between 
these and the inner, and at the same time a consid- 
erable difference in relative bulk. The inner layers, 
whether frozen or not, must considerably exceed 
the outer, and thus increase the strain upon them," 
and eventually causes the cleft. 

Sir James Ross, in the history of his antarctic 
voyage (Vol. I. p. 223), says : " We have often, in 
arctic regions, witnessed the astonishing effect of a 
sudden change of temperature during the winter 
season, causing great fissures in the ice of many 
miles in extent. A fall of thirty or forty degrees 
in the thermometer immediately occasions large 
cracks in every direction, attended with loud ex- 
plosions. Some of them open several inches by 
the contraction of the upper surface in contact with 
the extreme cold of the atmosphere." Dr. Kane's 
observations are similar, in his explorations of the 
arctic regions. 

7. Wind Shakes — Anemosis : Berkeley. Aside 
from the injury done by winds in breaking down 
the limbs of trees, is that to the young and soft 
shoots. By whipping these one against another, 



DROPSY. 473 

the lesion, or breakage, of the young cells results. 
This causes the death of a part or the whole of a 
shoot. Although this may not injure the tree per- 
manently, yet it gives it a very severe check. It 
may be prevented by proper shelter. 

8. Dropsy. This is a disease which may not 
closely resemble that to which this name is applied 
in animal pathology, yet it is the best term that 
can be used to express the idea. During a long 
season of rainy weather the plant becomes gorged 
with moisture ; the circulation is slow, and the 
evaporation small. Growths made at such a season 
are watery and tender, and the fruit is almost 
without flavor. If this condition lasts for any 
length of time, the fruit never ripens, and may 
decay upon the tree ; the foliage of the young 
shoots becomes white, or a sickly yellow, on account 
of a deficiency of light; and both the fruit and 
foliage drop ofl" prematurely. This disease scarcely 
ever exists where the drainage of the soil has been 
thorough [Berkeley), 

9. Sun-strohe — Desiccatio. This embraces the 
drying up of the fluids in either the roots or the 
foliage. The former may be occasioned by a drought, 
particularly in undrained land, which bakes in the 
sun; or the latter may follow as a result of the 
former, be occasioned by the work of insects, or 

40* 



474 SUN-STROKES. 

some atmospheric agency. It is very evident that 
the destruction of the rootlets cuts off the supply 
of sap, which is most disastrous. While the death 
of the tree may not always result, great weakness 
always follows. This disease is particularly liable 
to attack newly-planted trees, especially those set 
in the spring. When this is the case, and the 
drought continues, the tissue of the whole tree dries 
up. The best preventive is a well drained and 
thoroughly pulverized soil, where it has never made 
its appearance. 

10. Wounds — Vulnera. These are more or less 
injurious, according to their nature. If a large 
limb has been cut or broken down, the inner wood, 
which has lost its vitality, commences immediately 
to decay; and, unless it is prevented, it extends 
through the old wood of the tree. To prevent this 
loss of mechanical strength, it is necessary to cover 
all wounds which penetrate deeper than the vital 
wood with grafting-wax, paint, or some other ma- 
terial, protecting the wound from immediate contact 
with the air. If the tree is healthy, the new or vital 
parts soon extend over it. 

Cattle should not be allowed within the precincts 
of a young orchard, since they are likely to Tub 
against and break the limbs. Mice or rabbits often 
totally destroy trees by gnawing off the bark around 
their base during the winter. Thus, when the sap 



WOUNDS. 475 

starts in the spring, and has ascended to the foliage 
through the young wood, it is arrested in its back- 
ward passage by this girdling of the bark of the 
tree. If the least channel exists upon any side, the 
tree will often recover ; but if the girdling is entire, 
certain death results. Field-mice are encouraged 
by the presence of turf, or any rubbish in the 
vicinity of the orchard. After deep snows, when 
other supplies are cut off, they are especially active ; 
when found, they should be killed if possible, and 
the snow about the base of the tree trodden hard, 
to prevent their burrowing. 

11. The presence of Lichens. These give to an 
orchard a very neglected appearance. Although 
they are not directly injurious, yet they are so 
indirectly, by affording harbor for insects. They 
are also often an index of a poor state of health in 
the tree. They grow upon the dead bark, which 
has not been cast off because the vital functions 
are not sufficiently active, and the tree did not grow 
fast enough to burst this outer coating. In old 
trees it may be a proof of decrepitude ; in which 
case the vigor of the tree can hardly be permanently 
restored. But, with young trees, it results from 
some unfavorable condition ; generally the want of 
thorough drainage and liberal manuring. 

12. The circulation having been vitiated or poisoned 



476 DISEASES WHICH AFFECT THE PEAR. 

— Veneficmm. Plants, in common with animals, 
are sensitive to the influence of poisons. These 
may enter the plant through the root by solution, 
as the power of selection in the root is, to a degree, 
limited, or through the stomates of the leaf, as a 
gas. Many substances, poisonous or not, aflect plants 
and animals in a similar manner. A twig of the 
sensitive plant was placed in a glass tube which 
contained sulphurous ether; it soon unfolded, and 
could be handled without recoiling in the least ; but, 
through the influence of the external air, it grad- 
ually resumed its former character. The specific 
characters of poison may be as different as the 
number of substances which are poisonous, and the 
species of plants which they aff'ect. The vicinity 
of gas-works, and that of some chemical works, are 
generally considered as unhealthy for plants ; yet 
it would be impossible, except in a monograph, to 
describe, even if it were known, all the different 
effects produced, and state remedies for them. 

§ni. — DISEASES OF THE PEAR. 

I. Diseases which affect the Foliage. 1. AmeV' 
ican Pear Blight — Effusio subcutanea. There have 
been a variety of conjectures relative to the origin 
of this disease. In this country it is the worst 
malady with which the cultivator of the pear has 
to contend. Soijie times, entering a nursery, it will 



AMERICAN PEAR BLIGHT. 477 

entirely destroy blocks containing thousands of 
trees, or leave them to struggle for years against 
the poison thus introduced. Some varieties are 
peculiarly susceptible to it, as the Belle Lucrative 
(Fondante d'Automne), and particularly the Glout 
Morceau. The latter sort shoots a great many soft 
twigs, and grows late, unless prevented by summer 
pinching. 

Blight commonly makes its appearance in districts, 
more or less extensive, not exposed to any severe 
sweeps of wind during the season of growth. A 
gentleman in Western Massachusetts once doubted 
the truth of this assertion, and said that his orchard 
had been severely attacked, and yet it was on the 
top of a hill. It was visited on a stormy day in 
autumn, when the wind was very severe; but, on 
entering, the air was calm and still ; for, while the 
orchard lay open toward the south, at all other 
points it was skirted by forests. 

The strength of timber grown upon mountains, 
or in exposed positions, is known to be much greater 
than that grown in low valleys or on plains, where 
the air is more or less stagnant. 

Trees growing on the former sites always better 
endure the severities of winter than those on the 
latter. As before suggested, the gentle breezes of 
summer are of immense importance to the tree dur- 
ing the growing season, supplying the leaves with 
abundance of carbonic acid, so that the wood be- 



478 AMERICAN PEAR BLIGHT. 

comes firm. After a young cell has been formed, 
the interior of its membraneous walls is constantly 
receiving an increased coating of woody fibre. This 
takes place most rapidly in the cool weather of the 
autumn, after the growth has stopped, and the whole 
force of the sluggish circulation seems to be directed 
to this deposition. Consequently, it is then that 
the young wood requires the greatest abundance of 
carbon; and therefore an all-wise Providence sup- 
plies strong winds and gales to ripen their sub- 
stance. 

If a frost sufiicient to destroy vegetation occurs 
when the soft growth has just put forth, as in June, 
1861, in some sections of the United States, all the 
young parts of the tree present the same stained 
appearance as after blight. This results from the 
cells' lesion, which precipitates the sap into the in- 
tercellular spaces. This causes the burst cells to 
decay, with all the other parts, which have been 
corroded by the fusion of sap. As vegetable, like 
animal tissue, is extremely sensitive to decaying 
matter, not only these may be destroyed, but also 
the decay may spread through the young parts of 
the whole plant. 

The pear blight frequently occurs about the time 
of thunder showers. According to experiments 
made under the direction of the London Horticul- 
tural Society, it was found that just before, during, 
and immediately after a thunder-storm, the growth 



THE GOLDSMITH BEETLE. 479 

of vegetation was considerably retarded. The dif- 
ference in that of the hop was from sixty-four to 
eighty per cent., while in others it was not more 
than four. If this occurred when the wood was 
softj it caused a sudden stagnation of the sap in the 
leaves, while the cells were distended with the cir- 
culation. Their lesion, and the discharge of their 
contents, can easily be accounted for in a district 
where a plant had not been furnished with sufficient 
carbon to properly strengthen its cell walls. Thus 
it seems to result from lesion produced by weakness 
of the cell wall from want of carbon, acted upon so 
as to produce stagnation. The only remedy yet dis- 
covered is immediate amputation of the part. The 
prevalent idea that it is contagious, results from the 
rapidity with which this poisonous sap conveys the 
elements of decay, when the circulation is restored, 
and it becomes mixed with healthy sap. 

2. Insects. (1) The attack of the Goldsmith Beetle 
— Areoda lanigera. This appears about the middle 
of May. It flies during the night, and clings to 
the under surface of the leaf during the day. It 
consumes the young leaves of the pear and those 
of some forest trees. It is not usually sufficiently 
prevalent to injure the tree. If it becomes unduly 
multiplied, spread a sheet under the tree, and strike 
the stem a smart, quick blow, when it falls, and can 
be picked up and burnt. It is " nine-tenths of an inch 



480 THE PEAR-TREE SLUG. 

long, colored lemon above, glistening like burnished 
gold on the top of the head and thorax ; the body- 
beneath is copper colored, and thickly covered with 
whitish wool " (^Harris). 

(2) The Red Mite — Acarus geniculatus : Linn. 
This little insect is gregarious, congregating in the 
spring at the base of the twigs, and is often found 
in great numbers. It attacks the foliage of many 
fruit trees, particularly the pear. It causes a pecu- 
liar and sickly hue on the leaf. It can be distin- 
guished at a distance by the reddish tinge of its 
body. If unmolested, it destroys the tissue of the 
leaf, and thereby induces one of those diseases re- 
sulting from weakness. The insect becomes darker 
colored with age, attains about the size of a grain 
of very fine gunpowder, and during the winter lives 
under old bark or lichens. It may be destroyed by 
a profuse syringing of whale-oil soap-water, like 
that used for canker worms. 

(3) The Pear-tree Slug — Selandria Aethiops. This 
is the slimy larva of the saw-fly, and feeds upon the 
leaves of the pear. It is found upon the upper sur- 
face, solitary, or in groups of two or three. It is 
about five-eighths of an inch in length, is green in 
color, becoming darker with age. It eats nothing 
but the soft parts of the leaf, and commits its rava- 
ges in June and July. If unmolested, it strips the 
tree of its foliage. It is particularly injurious in 
seasons of drought. In that of 1864, two generations 



THE PEAR-TREE LYDA. 481 

were developed, the last of which did not disappear 
until October. Prof. Peck discovered a minute 
ichneumon fly, which deposits an egg in that of the 
saw-fly, and which, when hatched, feeds upon the 
contents, becomes transformed, and flies away upon 
its mission. This slug may be destroyed by dust- 
ing slacked lime upon the foliage when the dew is 
upon it. 

(4) The Pear-tree Lyda — Lycla fosciata. During 
the month of July the larva of this insect attacks the 
foliage of the pear. It is of a pale yellow color, 
with a black head, and is nearly one inch in length. 
It spins its silken web round the young leaves, and 
quickly consumes them. After its work is done, it 
lodges in the earth, and comes forth the following 
May as a moth. The male is black, with a yellow 
front of the head and abdomen. It is about a half- 
inch in length. The female is a little larger, but 
of the same color, except it has the yellow only 
between the atennae, at their base, on the mandibles, 
the legs, and the latter half of the abdomen. The 
larvae can be destroyed by dusting the foliage with 
slacked lime ( Westwood). 

(5) Large Pear-tree Astyages — Astyages Hemero- 
hiella. " My attention was directed, at the end of 
May, 1850, to the state of several pear trees trained 
against a wall in the gardens of the Horticultural 
Society at Chiswick. These were infected by myr- 
iads of small caterpillars in a blackish, cylindrical, 

41 • 



482 HISPA QUADRATA. 

movable case. The leaves exhibited large brown 
patches where they had been attacked. The case of 
this caterpillar is about half an inch long, enclosing 
the body of the insect, and both ends are open. 
Through the lower the animal can protrude its head 
and fore segments, and from the upper it discharges 
its excrement. On alarm it withdraws to its case. 
This stands erect at right angles to theleaf with which 
its mouth comes in contact. Its general position in 
walking is oblique. When it is fixed upon a spot 
to feed, it carefully forms a circular orifice in the 
cuticle of the leaf It then attaches the mouth of 
the case to the edges of the orifice, and feeds upon 
the cellular matter. It soon introduces its head 
and the fore segments of its body to the cavity be- 
tween the two surfaces of the leaf, and then adopts 
the habits of the ordinary leaf-mining caterpillars. 
When it has consumed this patch, it withdraws 
to its case, and fixes upon another spot." This in- 
sect is generally found not in sufficient numbers to 
do particular injury ; but, when it abounds, the only 
method of destroying it is to pick it by hand ( West- 
wood). 

(6) Hisjm quadrata: Fabr. H. Marginata : Say. 
H. rosea: Weber. This little insect,. whose grub is 
about one-fifth of an inch in length, deposits its 
eggs in numbers of from one to four on the surface 
of the leaf The larva bores through the epider- 
mis, and feeds upon the soft pulpy matter of the 



DISCOLORATION OF THE FOLIAGE. 483 

interior. Its presence may be detected by a brown 
or black spot upon the leaf; and wherever it is 
noticed, the leaf should be plucked off and burnt. 

3. Fungi. (1) Ascomyces hullatus. This is a veg- 
etable parasite attacking the leaves of the pear, and 
causing shallow, brilliant spots. Another, much 
like it, affects the leaves of the peach, and resem- 
bles large blisters, which distort the foliage. It is 
induced by cold weather in spring, and by want 
of drainage. When the disease commences, the 
foliage should be dusted on its under surface with 
dry flour of sulphur, or syringed with water mixed 
with sulphur and lime, as for the vine mildew 
[Berkelei/), 

(2) Ceratites. Page 432. 

(3) Cladosporium dendriticmn. Page 431. 

4. Discoloration of the foliage — Chlorosis. In the 
cells of growing vegetation are nitrogenous globules, 
containing a substance called chlorophyll. This 
takes various colors, but in leaves and new wood 
is generally green. The deeper colored the foliage, 
the richer it is in this substance. This shows that 
the globules are larger, and therefore that the cells 
containing it are more fully developed, active, and 
vigorous. Some varieties of fruit are constitution- 
ally remarkable for deep-colored foliage ; and such 
are vigorous and healthy under almost any circum- 
stances. 



484 ROTTING AT THE CORE. 

Berkeley says: "A portion of the plant, greater or 
less, does not assume its natural green hue, but ac- 
quires a yellowish tint. This may spread to other 
tissues, or remain isolated." "No chlorophyll is 
formed ; the walls of the cells become flaccid ; their 
contents undergo chemical changes, and the whole 
either dries up, leaving additional work to be done 
by those tissues which remain healthy, or the walls 
give way, decomposition takes place, the putrefying 
mass spreads its contagion in every direction, and 
involves the neighboring structures. "When the 
tissues dry up, the process may be slower, but the 
result is not less sure. Every part of the plant is 
liable to be aifected ; and even the tissue of the seed 
may be unhealthy, and transmit the disease through 
succeeding generations. Thus, what was at first 
accidental, may eventually become constitutional, 
or even hereditary." 

This disease results from weakness, produced by 
superabundant bearing, barren soil, or imperfect 
drainage. In the first case, rest and good care must 
be the remedy ; and in the latter two, these must be 
combined with fertility and thorough drainage. 

5. Premature fall of the Leaf — Phylloptosis. 
Page 428. 

II. Diseases affecting the Flower and Fruit. 
1. Bletting^ or Rotting at the Core — Hyposathria, 



INDURATION. 485 

" In some cases, no sooner has the fruit arrived at 
that condition which renders it available for the 
uses of man, than a further change takes place. 
The cell walls and their contents pass into a state of 
incipient decomposition, acquiring the brown tint 
so frequent where decay takes place in vegetables. 
The peculiar aroma vanishes, and the whole be- 
comes a soft, vapid, tasteless mass, devoid of every 
useful quality. Some varieties of pears so rapidly 
pass into this condition that they are scarcely worth 
cultivation, though some of them are of first-rate 
quality w^hen in perfection. The change generally 
takes place in a centrifugal direction. This distin- 
guishes its condition from many forms of putres- 
cence " {Berkeley/). 

This disease, if constitutional, condemns the 
variety. Yet very many of our best pears are 
subject* to undergo this change so slowly as not 
to materially injure them for table use. 

2. Induration — Sclerogenia. This disease is more 
common with the pear than with any other fruit. 
The vascular tissue becomes a tough, woody mass, 
which, of course, lessens the amount of sugar, and 
destroys the fruit for use. Although it is often 
accidental, depending upon soil or climate, yet 
some varieties are more liable to it than others, 
as the Easter Beurre upon cold soils ; but in the 
rich, warm lands of the West, or California, it is 
41* 



486 WANT OF BLOOM. 

very juicy and excellent. The Glout Morceau is 
subject to induration in the youth of trees, but in 
their maturity and age is free from it. 

3. Sterility, Page 444. 

4. Immaturity of the Fruit — Carpomosia : Re. 
Page 450. 

5. Deficiency in the cutaneous secretion — Ephi- 
drosis. Fruits, when grown most perfectly, are cov- 
ered with a sort of waxen secretion. This prevents 
the escape of their juices by decomposition or evap- 
oration. It forms a coating, and renders the fruit 
almost air-tight. When this is absent, they cannot 
be preserved for so long a time, and very soon 
wither. The entire or partial absence of this may 
arise from some derangement of the secretion, oc- 
casioned by atmospheric causes, or by an uncongenial 
soil. It has often been remarked that this bloom 
is more abundant where the land has been drained. 

Some times its absence is accidental, resulting 
from handling the fruit. Therefore it should never 
be touched more than is necessary while in growth ; 
and in gathering and preserving, great care should 
be practised that it be retained. The secret of 
the superior preservation of fruits, when barrelled 
immediately after being plucked, is that they are 
not handled, and consequently this coating is un- 
disturbed. 



ROOT BLIGHT. 487 

III. Diseases AFFECTING THE Stem. 1. Root Blight. 
This especially affects young dwarf pear trees. Very 
soon after the trees begin to grow, the leaves and 
wood turn to a deep brown color, approaching 
bronze. It differs entirely in appearance from the 
common pear blight, because that is black, and at 
first extends only over a portion of the tree ; while 
this is general, and takes place earlier in the season. 
On examination, the roots will be found dead, 
which, in the young dwarf pear, are very near the 
surface of the earth, and possess no strong taps to 
keep them in place ; and therefore, in undrained 
land, when the ground freezes and thaws, the tissue 
of the root is destroyed by the constant strain. 

2. Insects. (1) The Pear-blight Beetle — Scolytus 
Pyri : Peck. Tomicus Pyri : Harris. " This insect 
causes a blight of the limbs, which, in its outward 
appearance, resembles the common pear blight. 
The limbs which it attacks, turn black, and die in 
early summer, while other parts of the tree remain 
healthy. The disease is caused by the larva of this 
insect, w^hose egg was laid in the axil of a bud, who 
ate his way inward, and followed the eye of the 
bud toward the pith. Around this it passes, and 
partially consumes it. Thus the insect, after pen- 
etrating through the alburnum, forms a circular 
burrow or passage in the heart-wood, contiguous to 
the pith. By this means the central vessels are 



488 THE PEAR-BARK LOUSE. 

divided, and the circulation cut off." Thus the 
whole part above becomes deprived of its necessary 
nourishment, and dies. The Hon. J. Lowell, of 
Massachusetts, who discovered this insect, recom- 
mended the following method for its destruction : 
As soon as the blight appears, the limb should be 
cut off below the point of his burrow, and the whole 
be burned before he has time to come forth as a 
beetle, and provide for the extension of his race. 
(Harris). 

(2) The Pear-hark Louse — Secanium Pyri : 
Schrank. This is similar in its habits to the apple- 
bark louse ; but it is considerably larger. The 
remains of the female, under which the eggs are 
placed, is a brown scale, about one-fifth of an inch 
in diameter. When this comes off, a white spot 
of the same size remains, which is easily distin- 
guished. It is injurious to the tree, because it sucks 
the sap through the young bark. For methods of 
destroying them, see those used for that of the 
apple. 

(3) Cicada Septemdecim. The puncture of the 
wood by the locust. Page 462. 

3. Fungus upon the Root. Pear trees sometimes 
do not thrive, notwithstanding they are surrounded 
by all those conditions necessary to insure health. 
This is often occasioned by a fungus, which has 
attached itself to the root and wound around it ; 



FUNGUS UPON THE ROOT. 489 

and if the tree is taken up, its threads can be seen. 
It feeds upon the sap, and thus deprives the tree of 
its proper nourishment. It results from the pres- 
ence of decaying matter in the soil, or often from 
the remaining roots of trees of a former generation. 

IV. Diseases Affecting the Tree generally. 
1. Profusion of Sap. Page 462. 

2. Stagnation of Sap after transplanting — Stagnans 
elethargia. Page 464. 

3. Vitiatiofi of the Sap — Veneficium. Page 476. 

4. Canker — Carcinodes. Page 465. 

5. Decay — Caries, Page 468. 

6. Freezing — Congelatio. Page 469. 

7. Wind Shakes — Anemosis. Page 472. 

8. Dropsy — Anasarca. Page 473. 

9. Sun-stroke — Desiccatio. Page 473. 

10. Wounds — Vulnera. Page 474. 

11. Lichens. Page 475. 



490 PREMATURE FALL OF THE FRUIT. 

§ IV. — DISEASES OF THE PEACH. 

1. Diseases affecting the Leaf. 1. Dotted 
Apple-leaf Worm — Brachytaenia malana. Page 444. 

2. A Vegetable Parasite — Ascomyces, Page 483. 

II. Diseases affecting the Fruit. 1. Rose Bug 
— Macrodactylus suhspinosus. Page 454. 

2. Sterility, Page 444. 

3. Premature fall of the Fruit. This results from 
the bursting of the stone in consequence of injury 
during the spring, by a late frost after impregnation. 

III. Diseases affecting the Stem. 1. Insects. 
(1) Peach-tree Borer — Biiprestis divaricata : Say. 
This derives its name from the fact that the wing- 
covers are spread apart a little at the tips. " The 
beetles are copper colored, covered with punctures. 
They are from seven to nine-tenths of an inch in 
length." The larvae bore the trunks of the peach 
and cherry. When they are found in the tree, a 
flexible wire should be run into the hole, so as to 
stab the worm. 

(2) Snapping Beetle — Chyrsohothris femorata. 
Page 460. 



GUMMING OF THE PEACH. 491 

2. Gumming — Apostaxis, Plants contain in their 
economy a substance called gum. This is trans- 
formed as occasion requires. Its composition is, of 
carbon twelve parts, of hydrogen and oxygen eleven 
each ; while that of starch is one part less of the 
latter two, which are the elements of water, so that 
the elimination of these two parts transforms it into 
starch. Sometimes the tree stores up gum for 
future use. The cells become full, and often, by 
their lesion, cause the spaces between them to be 
filled. If one cell is broken, the gum will flow 
until there is no more room for it, the cell being 
constantly replenished. So far, its efl'ects may not 
be injurious ; but if any break takes place in the 
outer bark, the gum exudes ; and, as the air and 
moisture are admitted, the decay of a part, or even 
the whole of the tree, may be the result, either from 
simple decomposition or from corrosion. 

3. Profusion of Sap. Page 462. 

4. Vitiation of the Sap — Veneficium. Page 476. 

5. Decay — Caries. Page 468. 

6. Sun-stroke — Desiccatis. Page 473. 



7. Wounds — Vulnera. Page 474. 



492 THE CUECULIO. 



§ V. - DISEASES OF THE PLUM. 



I. Diseases affecting the Leaf. 1. Insects. 
(1) The Plum Louse — Aphis primi. This affects 
the leaves of the plum, curling them as upon the 
apple and cherry, and the same remedy applies. 
See page 433. 

(2) The Vaporer Moth — Orgyia , lencostigma. 
Page 437. 

(3) The Unicorn Moth — Notodonta unicornis. 
Page 440. 

II. Diseases affecting the Fruit. 1. Insects. 
(1) Curculio — Rhynchaenus nenuphar. This is a 
native of America, and has wonderfully increased 
within the last fifty years. It is a small beetle, of 
about one-quarter of an inch in length. Its color 
is a grayish-brown, varied with spots of white, 
yellow, and black. It has a curved beak or bill, 
and appears in small numbers as early as the first 
of April, but not in quantity until the middle of 
May. 

Early in June, when the fruit is sufficiently large, 
it begins to deposit its eggs. It seems to prefer the 
nectarine and plum, but also attacks the apple, 
pear, peach, and cherry. The crescent-shaped mark 
is made by its jaws at the end of its beak. This is 
not so distinguishable in the apple, because it soon 
heals over, and only a little speck remains. Having 



THE CURCULIO. 493 

made this aperture, it drops in one egg. From this 
is hatched a maggot, which feeds on the flesh around 
the core or stone, and appears during the latter 
part of July as a beetle, like its parent. Not only 
does it deposit its eggs in the fruits above named, 
but also in the soft substance of the plum-wart, or 
knot. It also pierces little holes in the bark with 
its beak, like the puncture of a pin, by which it 
draws the sap. What becomes of the beetle be- 
tween this time and the spring has been a mystery. 
Dr. Harris says, through the spring, beetles come 
forth from larvae which were retarded in growth, 
so that they remain in the ground as pupae all 
winter. Dr. Fitch very properly remarks, that the 
earth is warmer during the month of August than 
it is in July, and an insect whose transformations 
under ground are completed in three weeks in July, 
would not remain in the earth during the whole 
month of August. He says, these beetles, perfected 
in July, deposit eggs in the soft bark of the young 
wood, particularly in that of the butternut ; that 
these eggs are hatched, and become maggots, which 
eat out a space so as to form a little cavity, where 
they remain during the winter, and come forth in 
the spring. He found that a fly, somewhat resem- 
bling the gall-fly, gives birth to a parasite which 
preys upon the curculio. It is furnished at the tip 
of the abdomen with a very sharp, bristle-like sting, 
with which it penetrates the skin of the larva of the 
42 



494 THE CURCULIO. 

curculio, and deposits there an egg^ and soon hatches 
a worm. This fly is called SigalpJms curcuUonis. It 
is hoped that it will so increase as to prevent the 
ravages of the curculio. 

A great many preventives of the destruction 
caused by this insect have been proposed. The one 
most widely practised is that of spreading a sheet 
under the tree, and striking the stem smartly, when 
the beetle falls, as if dead. It should then be taken 
up and committed to the flames. If left to itself, 
it soon starts up and flies away. 

Dr. Fitch speaks highly of an application sug- 
gested by Mr. Cummings, of the " New York 
Observer." This consists of four ounces of sulphur, 
with a pound of whale-oil soap, added to four 
gallons of lime-water, the whole poured into an 
equal quantity of strong tobacco-water. But he 
thinks the effect will be equally efficient if sulphur 
and lime were omitted. This is syringed over the 
leaves of the tree, and repeated as often as it is 
washed off by the rain. The process should begin 
at the time when the curculio first makes his 
appearance. 

(2) The Rose Bug — Macrodactylus suhspinosus. 
Page 454. 

2. The fall of the Fruit. Page 490. 

3. Sterility. Page 444. 



THE PLUM WART. 495 

III. Diseases affecting the Stem. 1. The Plum 
Wart — Sphaeria morhosa. This is a fungus com- 
mon in the United States, where it attacks particu- 
larly, but not exclusively, the plum. It sometimes 
appears on the cherry. It produces great, gouty 
swellings upon the branches, and the glands of 
the bark look as if they had received poison. This 
is its appearance in the autumn. In the spring the 
part is very much enlarged, the skin broken, and 
the soft substance exposed, leaving the wound raw. 
It soon changes from its natural yellowish-green 
color to black ; and the fungus then becomes quite 
visible. The curculio takes advantage of this soft 
place to deposit its eggs. It is doubtful whether 
there is any remedy for the disease ; but it can be 
checked by vigorous amputation. 

By some this wart has been attributed to the 
sting of the curculio, because its larvae are so often 
present. But this is not always the case ; and the 
disease is often very prevalent where the curculio 
is not very abundant, and where it could find many 
other more natural and desirable positions in which 
to deposit its eggs. 

By others it has been attributed to rankness of 
growth, or the absorption of some poisonous ma- 
terial. Another writer thinks it is the result of 
the extremes of temperature which take place during 
the period of growth. He says that his opinion is 
corroborated by the fact, that years ago, before the 



496 THE PLUM WART. 

forests were cleared away, and when the seasons 
were more equable, it was not troublesome ; and 
now, in many new countries the plum can be raised 
with ease previous to the clearing which precedes 
a growing population. But he overlooks the fact 
that, if such be the cause, it should be more preva- 
lent in the interior districts, and less so on the coast, 
where the ocean tends to equalize the temperature. 
But this is not sustained by experience. 

2. Gumming — Apostaxis, Page 491. 

IV. Diseases affecting the Tree generally. 
1. Profusion of Sap — Profusio simplex. Page 462. 

2. Vitiation of the Sap — Venejicium. Page 476. 

3. Freezing — Congelatio. Page 469. 

4. Dropsy — Anasarca, Page 473. 



5. Wounds — Vulnera, Page 474. 



§ vi. — diseases of the cherry. 

I. Diseases affecting THE Leaf. 1. Insects. (1) 
Cherry-tree Louse — Aphis cerasi : Fabr. This is 
wonderfully reproductive. It makes its appearance 
from the fifteenth to the twenty-fifth of June, when 



THE CHERRY LOUSE. 497 

it feeds upon the young foliage. Its number is 
then ahnost incredible, — more than one thousand 
being accommodated on both surfaces of a leaf one 
inch in length. The young sometimes lie two deep, 
only caring for room to run their beaks into the 
tissue of the leaf and feed upon the juices of the 
tree. The foliage is often black with them. It is 
necessary that the cultivator should use the prepa- 
ration of whale-oil soap, as recommended for the 
apple louse [Fitch). 

(2) The May Beetle — Phyllophaga quercina : 
Knock. " This insect is chestnut-brown in color ; 
smooth, covered with little impressed dots ; each 
wing-case having two or three slightly elevated 
longitudinal lines. The breast is clothed with 
yellowish down." It is about an inch in length, 
and feeds upon the leaves. It can be shaken from 
the tree in the morning upon sheets, and burned ; 
or killed by immersion in hot water. The grub, 
while in the earth, lives upon young roots [Harris). 

(3) The Hag Moth — Limacodes pethecium. Page 
440. 

(4) The Dotted Aijple-leaf Worm — Brachytaenia 
malana. Page 444. 

II. Diseases affecting the Fruit. 1. The Rose 
Bug — Macrodactghis suhspmosus. Page 454. 

III. Diseases AFFECTING the Stem. 1. Wounds — 

Vulnera, Page 474. 

42* 



498 THE GOOSEBERRY CATERPILLAR. 

2. Insects. (1) The Borer — Buprestis divaricata. 
Page 490. 

(2) The Cylindrical Borer — Linodendron ct/liu' 
dricum. Page 464. 

3. The Wart — Sphaeria morhosa. Page 495. 

4. Gumming — Apostaxis, Page 491. 

IV. Diseases affecting the Tree generally. 1. 
Profusion of Sap — Profusio simplex. Page 462. 

2. Decay — Caries. Page 468. 

3. Freezing — Congelatio, Page 469. 

4. Dropsy — Anasarca. Page 473. 

5. Sunstroke — Desiccatio. Page 473. 

§viL— diseases of the gooseberry. 

1. Insects. (1) The Gooseberry Caterpillar. The 
moth has four transparent wmgs. The body and 
legs are yellow ; the head, atennae, and feet black. 
The male is smaller, and is all black except the 
tip and sides, which are yellow. These insects, as 
flies, emerge from the ground in the spring, and lay 
their eggs on the under surface of the leaves. The 
larvae, when hatched, feed upon the leaf, piercing 



THE GOOSEBERRY CATERPILLAR. 499 

it with holes, which soon enlarge until the leaf 
is destroyed. This not only ruins the crop of fruit 
of the present year, if the attack is made while it is 
growing, but it prevents the ripening of the wood, 
and thus destroys the prospect of a crop for the 
next year. Various methods have been resorted to 
for preventing their ravages ; as catching the flies 
when they emerge fromx the ground in the spring. 
But this is impracticable. Others have picked them 
from the leaves, or removed the earth while the 
pupae were in the soil ; or have covered it with 
some material, like fresh tan, which was obnoxious 
to them. 

The powder of white hellebore is understood to 
be a most effectual remedy if dusted upon the 
under part of the leaf when the caterpillar is at 
work. Its efficacy depends, in a great measure, 
upon the dryness of the powder. If it has absorbed 
moisture, it is sure to be inoperative. It should, 
therefore, be thoroughly dried before the fire pre- 
vious to use. 

(2) The Swallow-tailed Moth — Ourapteryx sam- 
hucaria : Linn. This infests the leaves of the 
apricot, and the gooseberry among fruit-bearing 
plants. The caterpillar is brown in color, and is 
two and one-half inches in length. On the sixth 
and eighth segments of the body are two tubercles 
each. The terminus is divided into two points. 
Attached to the first three segments of the body are 



500 THE GOOSEBERRY MIDGE. 

three pairs of jointed legs, and behind one pair of 
ventral, and one of pro-legs. It is of the genus 
Geometridae, rising upon its hind legs and throwing 
forward those at the front, and measuring a regular 
distance each time. The tubercles are their distin- 
guishing peculiarities. The moth is about two and 
one-half inches in the spread of its fore wings, and 
is of a pale yellow color, with light green lines. 
The posterior wings end in points, which have two 
brownish-red spots. 

( 3 ) The Gooseberry Midge — Cecidomyia grossulariae. 
The fly of this insect deposits her eggs in the fruit 
when it is very small. The presence of the larvae 
can be detected afterwards by the prematurity of the 
berry. It turns red, is putrid, and, if examined, a 
number of small, yellow maggots will be found, 
which have been hatched from the eggs. These 
cause the fruit to fall to the ground, when the 
insect becomes a fly, and produces still another 
generation the same season. The maggots of this 
second family seek shelter in the ground during the 
winter, and come forth as flies the next June. To 
prevent their attacks, all those fruits which show 
this prematurity should be plucked and burned 
before the maggots have time to leave. 

2. The Gooseberry Mildew — Erysiphe mors uval. 
This is the common brown mildew which attacks 
the smooth varieties of the gooseberry. It some- 



THE CURRANT-BUSH BORER. 501 

times renders a whole crop utterly useless. It con- 
sists of tufts of brownish strings of spores, "in a 
sac which opens above." It covers not only the 
fruit, but often the leaves and young wood. Dr. 
Berkeley represents it, in its first stages, as similar 
in many respects to the grape mildew. Sulphur, as 
applied to the vine, will prove an effectual remedy, 
if used during the first part of its growth. 



§Vm. — DISEASES OF THE CURRANl' 

1. The fall of the Leaf — Phylloptosis, Page 428. 

2. The Currant-bush Borer — Aegeria tipuliformis : 
Linn. " The moth is blue-black ; the under side 
of the feelers, the collar, the edges of the shoulder- 
covers, and three very narrow rings on the abdomen, 
are golden yellow." It deposits its eggs during the 
latter part of June, at the axil of a leaf ; and, when 
the larva is hatched, it bores to the pith, which, 
with the bordering cells, it consumes for a great 
distance. The limb becomes very weak, the foliage 
sickly, and the fruit small. Whenever a branch 
exhibits these marks, and, upon examination, a 
borer is found to be at work, the diseased part 
should be cut off", with the borer, and the whole 
burned, to prevent their multiplication [Harris), 



502 THE RASPBERRY GRUB. 



§ IX. — DISEASES OF THE RASPBERRY. 

The Raspherry Grub — Tinea corticella : Linn. 
This insect, in the larva state, attacks the cane. 
It commences in the bud that is to produce fruit, 
which, from its tenderness, is a very acceptable 
meal. It then consumes the major part of the in- 
side of the bearing-stalk, which wilts and dies. By 
pinching the wilted bud and stalk vigorously be- 
tween the fingers, the grub may be killed. It is 
about a quarter of an inch in length, of a scarlet 
color, and has a black head, with one longitudinal 
light line over the centre. The first segment has 
two double, black spots, with very few hairs ; and 
is largest in the middle of its body, which is fur- 
nished with sixteen legs. The first three pairs are 
upon the first three segments. There are then four 
pairs of ventral legs, and one pair of anal pro-legs. 
By the first part of June the caterpillar will have 
accomplished all the injury he will do ; then it 
becomes a chrysalid among the dead foliage, and 
appears in about a fortnight as a moth. 

The fore wings of the moth are brown, covered 
with livid yellow spots. The hind wings have no 
spots. The head has a great many yellow hairs 
covering it. The life of the moth is only about a 
month or six weeks in length, during which time it 
deposits its eggs upon the young shoots. They soon 



THE GRAPE-VINE PLURIE. 503 

hatch, when the larvae eat the leaves until they 
have acquked sufficient growth, when, with the 
approach of winter, they take up their abode upon 
the stem ( Westwood). 

h X. — DISEASES OF THE VINE. 

I. Diseases affecting the Foliage. 1. Insects. 
( 1 ) The Grape-viiie Plume — Pterophorus periscelidaC' 
tylus. The larvae are about one-half an inch in 
length, having sixteen feet, and fourteen segments to 
their bodies. They are pale green in color, "and have 
two rows of elevated white spots along the back, and 
one on each side, from all of which little white bris- 
tles stand out." These insects become moths the 
latter end of June or first of July ; and very probably 
give birth to another generation the same season. 
They may be easily detected upon the vine when in 
the larva state, for they draw together two or three 
leaves by means of threads. When this is observed, 
the leaves should be cut off very carefully, so as not 
to disturb the worm, else he will escape ; and the 
whole should be burned, or trampled under foot, so 
as to destroy the insect {Fitch). 

(2) Saw-fly of the Viiie — Selandria vitis. The 
color of this fly is generally black, except the under 
part of the thorax, which is red, and also the fore 
legs and under part of the other legs, which are 
pale yellow. The wings are of a smoky color, with 



504 SAW-FLY OF THE VINE. 

brown veins. The female is one-quarter of an inch 
in length ; the male, somewhat shorter. They rise 
at irregular intervals from the ground, and lay their 
eggs on the under part of the terminal leaves. In 
July these hatch. 

The larva commences at the edge of the leaf, and 
consumes all the soft parts, working in company 
with a dozen or twenty. It is a little more than an 
inch in length, and has twenty-two legs. The head 
and tail are black, the upper parts of the body light 
green, and the lower yellowish ; becoming more 
yellow at every moulting. After attaining their 
size they excavate, and line with silk little cavi- 
ties in the earth. In about two weeks they come 
forth, and again lay eggs. The young from these 
remain in the ground as chrysalids all the winter. 
The larvae may be destroyed by immersion in a 
solution of whale-oil soap and water, or by dusting 
with air-slacked lime. The solution of soap should 
be in the proportion of two pounds to fifteen gallons 
of water (Hams). 

(3) Anomala vitis : Fabr. This beetle penetrates 
the ground for a few inches, deposits its eggs, which 
amount to about a hundred. These hatch, and the 
worms feed upon the tender roots of all sorts of 
plants. During May they make their appearance. 
The beetles are brown ; " the atennae nine or ten 
jointed ; the knob is of three leaf-like pieces, which 
open and shut. The visor is short and wide ; the 



THE SPOTTED VINE BEETLE. . 505 

upper jaws are furnished at the base, on the inner 
side, with an oval space, crossed by ridges for grind- 
ing. The thorax is transversely square. At times 
they attack the vine very furiously, depriving it of 
foliage. The only remedy is to pluck them by 
hand " (Harris). 

(4) The Spotted Vine Beetle — Pelidnota punctata. 
The larva exists in decayed wood and roots, and the 
beetle attacks the leaves, sometimes in large quan- 
tity. " The wing-covers are dull brownish yellow, 
with three distinct black dots on each. The thorax 
is darker, with a black spot on each side. The 
body beneath, and the legs, are deep bronzed 
green." They are about an inch in length, and 
can be readily detected and plucked off by hand 
{Harris). 

(5) The Vine Pyralis — Tortrix vitana. This is 
an insect which causes immense damage to the vine- 
yards of France, by consuming the young foliage. 
The moth is nearly an inch in the spread of its 
fore wings, which are green and glossy, with three 
transverse brown lines. The remainder is brown. 
The female deposits her eggs on the leaves during 
the month of July. When the larva comes forth it 
hangs from the leaf, and eats the young foliage dur- 
ing the summer. The caterpillar is green, except 
the head and first segment of the body, which are 
brown. When the winter commences they hide 
themselves, by a silken cover, under the dead bark. 

43 



506 . THE VINE PYRALIS. 

Several methods have been proposed to destroy 
them, among which was this : to collect the leaves 
upon which the eggs were deposited. But the method 
which is generally practised is that discovered by 
M. Eaclet. Early in the spring, before the cater- 
pillars have come forth from the bark, the whole 
trunk of the vine is washed with hot water. This 
effectually destroys them, and is found to be far 
from injurious to the vine, provided it is done after 
severe frosty weather is past ( Westwood). 

(6) Procris Amerciana. When in the caterpillar 
state, these attack the leaves of the grape-vine, con- 
suming all except the framework. The eggs are 
laid in groups of about twenty, and the worms live 
together. They are yellow, with black tufts on 
each segment of the body. The eggs are laid upon 
the under surface of the leaves. The moth depos- 
its them during the first part of July [Harris). 

(7) Haltica chalyhea — Illiger. This is a beetle, 
attacking the leaves and buds. It is, as its name 
indicates, generally blue, but not always. It is 
about one-seventh of an inch long. Two broods 
make their appearance each year : one in May, and 
the other the last of July. The eggs are deposited 
upon the surface of the leaf, and the larva con- 
sumes the interior soft part. Whenever this min- 
ing of the foliage is observed, the leaf should be 
plucked and burned. When they abound, if the 
foliage is sprinkled with lime, or with soap-suds, 



THE LEAF-HOPPER OF THE VINE. 507 

every day or two during the time that the eggs are 
deposited, the females will be prevented from laying 
(Harris). 

(8) The Leaf'Jiopper of the Vine — Tettigonia vitis: 
Harris. This little hopper is about one-tenth of an 
inch in length. " Its color is generally pale yellow. 
The back part of the thorax, the scutel, the base 
of the wing-covers, and a broad band across the 
middle, are scarlet. The tip of the wing-covers are 
blackish, and some little lines between the broad 
bands and the tips, red." They live on the under 
surface of the leaves. In the larva state they feed 
upon the juices of the plant, drawn through its 
leaves. The effect upon the vine is that the sap- 
flow is reduced, the vine becomes weak, the foliage 
yellow, and production prevented. 

In August the insect arrives at maturity, but still 
sucks the sap, and on the approach of winter hides 
in any material which will give it shelter. After 
the deposition of its eggs in the spring, it dies. 
The only means by which it can be completely 
destroyed is by using a little tent, which is spread 
over the affected vine, and filled with tobacco- 
smoke. The tent should be tight, to prevent its 
escape (Fitch). 

(9) Bomhyx grata : Fabr. These attack and de- 
vour the foliage ; not only the leaves, but also the 
stalks. They are solitary in their habits. They 
disappear before the first of September. The cater- 



508 THE PHILAMPELUS. 

pillar is about an inch and a quarter in length, of a 
blue color, transversely banded with deep orange 
across the middle of each ring. The bands are 
dotted with black; the head and feet are orange. 
They appear the middle of July, and the moths 
which produce them the last of June (Harris). 

(10) Phil'ampelus. This caterpillar is fully three 
inches in length, and is a great consumer of the 
foliage. Its color is pale green or brown. It has a 
tail, curved like that of a dog, when it is young ; 
but as it grows and changes its skin, this disappears. 
It enters the earth during August, and, after being 
transformed, comes forth as a moth early in the fol- 
lowing summer. It is of so large a size that it can 
readily be detected and destroyed (Harris). 

(11) Choerocampa vitis. This is a large, fleshy 
caterpillar, like the preceding, feeding upon the 
foliage. But the injury which it inflicts does not 
stop here ; for it nips ofl" the young bunches of 
fruit and throws them upon the ground. It is for- 
tunate that it is solitary, and that it does not in- 
crease to such an extent as to ruin the whole crop 
when half grown. It can be destroyed, like the 
preceding, only by hand-plucking (Harris). 

(12) Ri/nchitis vitis. This insect has been very 
destructive to the vine in Europe, and in some parts 
of the United States. It rolls up the leaves in form- 
ing a retreat for its larva; and by this means a 
whole vineyard is sometimes deprived of efficient 



VINE MILDEW. 509 

foliage. It also attacks fruit trees, but seems to 
prefer the vine. It can be destroyed by carefully 
gathering the leaves which are rolled, and burning 
them. This will kill the larva, and prevent further 
multiplication. 

2. Fungi. (1) Vine Mildew — Oidkim Tuckeri : 
This is a fungus appearing upon the under surface 
of the foliage, resembles a white powder, and is very 
rapid in its propagation. It often spreads upon, and 
destroys, the fruit. If not arrested, it will ultimately 
ruin both the foliage and the young wood. 

As fungus generally attacks vegetation when it is 
inactive, we must look to some previous cause. Cer- 
tain waiters have considered the oidium as epidemic; 
but it is probably endemic. It seems to depend 
upon a certain condition of the plant, and the fun- 
gus is really but the consequence. This is to be 
proved from the observations of so many cultivators 
of the grape, who describe it as attacking the vine 
in fine weather, after a cold or wet season. There 
seems to be no doubt that its appearance is due to 
a stagnation of the sap, resulting from a sudden 
transition from warmth to cold in the atmosphere. 
Among the instances of injury by it was one in 
which the vines w^ere situated in a cold grapery, 
and a hail storm having broken some of the 
glass, the change in the temperature was imme- 
diately followed by mildew upon the vines. There 
43* 



510 VINE MILDEW. 

is seldom an occurrence of this disease when it can- 
not be traced, in like manner, to a sudden extreme. 
The summers of 1862 and 1863 were remarkable, 
in the eastern part of the country, for these changes; 
and consequently there was a great prevalence of 
mildew, while in 1864 the opposite was the case. 

The vine mildew which results from this oidium 
was so much feared in France, on its first ajDpear- 
ance, that the Government offered a prize of ten 
thousand francs, in connection with the " Society for 
the Encouragement of National Industry," for a 
remedy. Three thousand francs were added for 
the best essay upon the disease ; and prizes of from 
five hundred to one thousand francs were given to 
eight gentlemen for their efforts in observing and 
explaining the nature of this fungus. It threatened 
at one time to cause as much suffering among the 
inhabitants of the vine districts of France and 
Madeira, by the ruin of the crop, as did the pota- 
to disease in Ireland. 

The remedy is to apply water containing sulphur 
and lime, slacked together. In large vineyards it is 
almost impossible to apply this wash, and therefore 
dry flour of sulphur is thrown on the under side of 
the leaf This should be a very fine powder ; and 
the purchaser must be careful that the ground, 
coarser material be not substituted. It should be 
applied when the fungus first makes its appearance. 
The oidium of the vine creeps over the surface of 



VINE MILDEW. 511 

the leaf, like the fungus of the hop, and therefore is 
more accessible than many other species which 
insinuate themselves among the intercellular parts 
of the foliage, and can only be affected by remedies 
when they make their appearance through the 
stomates. 

Mr. Forrester, the author of a work upon the 
vine disease, states that in Portugal the flour of 
sulphur does not check the fungus as well as fumes 
of the same, or as a solution of penta-sulphide of 
lime. Three thousand four hundred and forty-four 
tons of sulphur were used in the French vineyards 
for arresting the oidium during the summer of 1856. 

Mr. P. Lazaris, of Athens, Greece, claims to have 
discovered, in the year 1858,^ that "any substance 
which is dry and pulverized, and which does not 
injure the foliage, will cure the mildew." This he 
states as the results of experiments, and attributes 
his success to the fact " that, attaching itself easily, 
it dries the fungus, absorbs its juices, and thus cuts 
off its nourishment." 

His experiments were as follows : "I powdered 
my vines with sulphur, except one corner which 
stood apart from the rest. This was divided into 
two portions : one was treated with the sulphurous 
earth of Kalimaki ; the other, simply with clay 
which had been separated from sand or gravel, very 
finely pulverized, and dried a few hours in the sun. 

1 Transactions of the New York State Agricultural Society, 1859. 



512 VINE MILDEW. 

At the same time, a few vines were left in their 
natural state. The three portions treated with the 
different materials all showed the cure alike, while 
the vines not powdered at all were entirely destroyed 
by the disease." As some persons thought the 
sulphur exerted an influence at a distance, he de- 
termined to have another trial. He powdered the 
vines with clay before flowering, and twice at a 
later date. At one stage of his experiments there 
were some signs of the disease ; but by repeating 
the application it was entirely arrested. 

From these experiments he drew the following 
conclusions: earth should be free from all sand and 
gravel, dried a few hours, pulverized, and then sifted 
or bolted like sulphur. Clay is easily prepared, 
and adheres well to the vines. The application is 
best after sunrise, while the vines are moist with 
dew. 

We have repeated the experiments of the above- 
named gentleman, but with success not equal to 
his. This, perhaps, resulted from inaccurate prepa- 
ration of the clay ; and it therefore deserves another 
trial. 

(2) Erysiphe. "This word denotes white mealy 
fungi. Examined under the microscope, they are 
found to consist of necklace-like threads, springing 
from a creeping mycelium. These clothe the surface, 
and send down little suckers, which adhere firmly to 
the leaf and decompose its tissue, or crawl among 



VINE MILDEW. 513 

the intercellular spaces, and send up fertile threads 
from the stomata. The joints of these threads vary 
in form. Some are cylindrical, others elliptic. 
The upper joints fall off, and germinate : thus the 
fungus is propagated with great rapidity. Some- 
times the endochrome gives birth to multitudes of 
minute spondia (or seed-vessels), each of which is 
capable of germination within the external cell. 
Thus the original spore looks like a little hedge-hog, 
as the germinating threads project from its surface 
in every direction" [Berkeley). 

(3) Botrytis, This is a branched mycelium which 
wanders among the intercellular spaces near the 
under side of the leaf It penetrates to the air 
through the stomata, and sets free the spores which 
are to reproduce it. This is of the same genus as 
the potato murrain which caused such ravages in 
Ireland a few years ago. Not only does it rob the 
plant of nutriment, but induces decay by its own 
putrefaction. This disease can be reached only with 
great difficulty, and none of the remedies proposed 
are of much value [BerJceleyy 

II. Diseases affecting the Fruit and Flower. 
I. The Rose Bug — Macrodactylus suhspinosus : Fabr. 
Page 454. 

2. Shanldng. This is the decay of the stem of 
the bunch, or of the footstalks, caused by disagree- 



514 SHANKING. 

ment between the temperature of the soil and that 
of the air. It is particularly liable to appear after 
a long, cold rain. Thorough drainage is an efficient 
remedy. The rotting of the berry results from the 
same cause. 

The preceding chapter is only an outline of the 
treatise which such a subject deserves. As was 
suggested at the outset, it treats only of the more 
common maladies, and is but introductory to a 
work, more strictly scientific, which may hereafter 
be given to the public. 



INDEX. 



PAGE 

Adaptation of varieties, 201 

Affinity of soils for moisture, 66 

Air, essential to roots, 150 

" importance of a circulation, 306 

Altitude, 26 

Alluminum, 179 

Allumina, 179 

" phosphate of, 179 

" sulphate of, 179 

Alluvial agencies, 58 

Ammonia, 170 

Anthers, dehiscence of 407 

Apple, soil for, 81 

" varieties adapted to different 

soils, 83 

" age of tree proper to plant, 273 

*' root-grafted trees, 274 

" diseases of: 

/. Tkose affecting the leaf — 

1. The fall of the leaf, 428 

2. The presence of fungi, > 430 

(1) Cladosporium dendriticum, 431 

(2) Ceratites, 432 

(3) Raestelia, 432 

3. Insects: 

(1) Apple-tree louse, 433 

(2) Common caterpillar, 434 

(3) The oak-tree caterpillar, 436 

(4) The vaporer moth, 437 

(5) The Palmer worm, 439 

(6) The hag moth, 440 

(7) The unicorn moth, 440 

(8) The canker worm, 441 

(9) The handmaid moth, 443 

(10) The dotted apple-leaf worm,444 
II. Diseases affecting the fruit and 

flower — 

1. Sterility, 444 

2. Immaturity of the fruit, 450 



3. Insects: 

(1) The apple saw-fly, 

(2) " midge, 

(3) The codling moth, 

(4) The rose bug, 



4&2 
453 
453 
454 



III. Diseases which affect the- stem — 
1. Insects: 

(1) The goat moth, 455 

(2) The common borer, 456 

(3) The root-blight beetle, 458 

(4) The snapping beetle, 460 

(5) The bark louse, 460 
(6) The locust of the "seven- 
teenth year," 462 

IV. Diseases which affect the tree gen- 

erally — 

1. Profusion of sap, 462 

2. Stagnation of the sap from hun- 

ger, 464 

3. Stagnation of the sap from 

transplantation, 464 

4. Canker, 465 

5. Decay, 468 

6. Freezing, 469 

7. Wind-shakes, 472 

8. Dropsy, 473 

9. Sunstrokes, 473 

10. Wounds, 474 

11. Lichens, 475 

12. Vitiation of the circulation, 475 
Apricot, soil for, 84 

" training and pruning of, 318 

Aqueous vapor, 34 

Arrangement, intensive, 289 

" No. of trees per acre, 290 

Aspect, 26 



Bark, removal of. 
Berberry, soil for, 



84 



516 



INDEX. 



Blackberry, pruning of, 
Buckwheat for green manure, 
Budding machine, 



194 



Calcium, chloride of, 
" sulphurate of, 



180 
180 

« 179 

Canada East, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

" West, " " 206-243 

Capillary attraction, 69 

Carbon, 173 

" origin of in the soil, 175 

Cells, multiplication of, 167 

Cherry, soil for, 84 

" pruning of, 324 

" diseases of: 

I. Those affecting the foliage — 
1. Insects: 

(1) The cherry-tree louse, 496 

(2) The May beetle, 497 

(3) The hag moth, 440 

(4) The dotted apple-leaf worm, 444 

II. Diseases affecting the fruit — 

1. The rose bug, 454 

III. Diseases affecting the stem — 

1. Wounds, 474 

2. Insects: 

(1) The borer, 490 

(2) The cylindrical borer, 498 

3. The Wart, 495 

4. Gumming, 491 

IV. Diseases of the tree generally — 

1. Profusion of sap, 462 

2. Decay, 468 

3. Freezing, 469 

4. Dropsy, 473 

5. Sunstroke, 473 
Chlorine, ' 180 
Circles around trees, 145 
Climate, island or coast, 27 

" inland or continental, 28 

" east of the Kocky Mountains, 30 

« west " " 30 

" influence of upon offspring, 384 

Coast or island climate, 27 

Cold, 38 

Colors of fruit, 36 

Continental climate, 28 

Connecticut, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

" best 6 varieties of apples 

for 100 trees for, 248 

" best 12 varieties do., 248 



Connecticut, best 12 varieties of pears 
on pear stock for 100 
trees for, 248 

" best ten varieties of pears 

on quince stock for, 248 
*' best 6 varieties of peach- 

es for, 248 

Corolla, withering of after fecunda- 
tion, 403 
Cultivation, shallow for summer, 347 
" summer, object of, 347 
" influence of upon produc- 
tion of offspring, 386 
Currant, soil for, 84 
" training of, 283 
" pruning of, 334 
" diseases of: 

1. The fall of the leaf, 428 

2. The currant-bush borer, 601 

Degeneracy, resulting from age, 389 

Dehiscence of anthers, 407 

" hygrometrical, causes of, 407 

Delaware, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

Dew, 35 

Diluvial currents, deposits of, 58 

Disease, general observations upon, 420 

" manner of considering it, 420 

" classification of, by Berkeley, 421 

«' " " Weighmann,421 

" constitutional, 422 

" statement of causes of by J. 

De Jonghe, 422 

Disintegration, chemical causes of, 54 
" mechanical causes of, 55 

District of Columbia, fruits adapted 

to 206-243 

Drains, direction of, 105 

" distance apart, 109 

" depth of, 112 

Drainage, 90 

" what lands require it, 104 

" materials for, 115 

" manner of operation, 120 

*' obstruction of, 121 

" benefits of, 121 



Embryo, formation of. 


411 


Evaporation, 


100 


" loss of heat by, 


10 


Exposure, 


26 


" the summit of hills. 


44 


" varieties of pears for, 


45 









INDEX. 


517 








PAGE 




PAGE 


Exposure, northern 




45 


Georgia, best varieties of freestone 




' 


extending the season 


of 




peaches, 


259 




fruit, 




4G 


" best varieties for shipping. 


259 


' 


for the vine. 




46 


" best varieties for drying 


259 


' 


» southern, 




47 


Gooseberry, soil for, 

" running of. 


85 
336 


Fecundation, false hybrid, 




404 


" bush, form of, 
" diseases of: 
/. Insects — 


283 




" obstruction of by super 


- 






abundance of viscous 






juice, 
" slowness of, 




401 


(1) Tlie gooseberry caterpillar 


498 






401 


(2) The swallow-tail moth. 


499 


Fig, 
riemi 
Forar 
Frost 






85 


(3) The gooseberry midge, 


500 


sb Beauty, blowing off of, 

nen, position of, 

, inland and on coast, 




44 

409 

35 


//. The gooseberry mildew, 
Grafts, root, 
" cleft, 


500 
37'4 
370 


Frost 






38 


" crown, 


372 


Frost-bitten plants. 




40 


" D'albret or tubular, 


372 


Fruits for the amateur. 




203 


" peg, 


373 




" family use. 




203 


" sylvain, 


373 


u 


" market, 




203 


" renewal, 


373 


u 


size of, 




204 


side. 


374 


(( 


adapted to different states, 




205 


whip, 
" Ferari, 


374 


(( 


thinning of, 




351 


374 


" 


production of, not exhaustive 
ringing of, 


,351 
353 


" fruit-spur, 
" iuarch, 


374 
375 


u 


trees, watering of, 




354 


'• morceau. 


375 




gathering of, 
preservation of, 




857 

359 


'• in the axil of the leaf, 
" square bud, 
" tubular bud. 


376 
377 
377 


" 


rooms, 




359 






« 


" temperature of, 
packing of. 




362 
362 


'' en ecusson, 

" for immediate fruiting, 

" renewal, 

" of the vine, in midsummer, 


377 
379 
380 
381 


Garden of one square rod, 




285 


" embryonic, 


381 


<( 


of sixteen square rods. 




286 


Grafting, 


364 


Gathering fruit, 




357 


" influence of stock. 


364 


(( 


time of. 




358 


" scion, 


366 


(( 


manner of, 




358 


" season of, 


367 


Georgia, fruits adapted to. 


206-243 


" wax. 


368 


<( 


best 17 varieties of apples 


for 




" pot, 


369 




100 trees. 




257 


Grape (see vme). 




t( 


best 12 do. do.. 




257 


" soil for. 


85 


<( 


best 6 do. do.. 




257 


Green crops, 


187 


(( 


best 6 varieties of pears 


on 




" " economy of. 


189 




pear stock. 




257 


" " advantages of. 


190 


(( 


best 12 do. do.. 




258 


" " vetch and white lupine 


(( 


best 6 varieties of pears 


on 




for, 


193 




quince stock 




258 


" " buckwheat for. 


194 


<( 


best 12 do. do.. 




258 


" " rye, turnips, red clover 




(< 


best for 100 or 1000 trees 




258 


and sperry for. 


' 194 


(( 


best 6 varieties of peaches. 


258 






(( 


best 12 " " " 




258 


Hardiness of species and varieties, 


46 


" 


best for 100 or 1000 trees 




259 


Heat, a stimulus, 


36 




44 











518 



INDEX. 



Heat, Knight's experiments with, up- 
on melons and cucumbers, 36 
" radiation of, 37 

" effect of, on the quality and 

quantity of -wine, 37 

" of soil increased by drainage, 102 

Heeling-in, 291 

Hoar-frost, 35 

Humus, 52 

Hybrids, obtaining seed from, 405 

Hybridization, 396 

" manner of operation, 401 

" qualities obtained from 

the female and male 

parents, 415 

Hydrogen, 169 



Ice resting upon strawberry plants, 31 

" trees girdled by, 32 

" floods, 56 
Illinois, Northern, fruits adapted 

to, 206-243 

« Central, do. do., 206-243 

« Southern, do. do., 206-243 
" best 6 varieties of apples for 

100 trees, 268 

" best 12 do. do., 268 

" best 20 do. do., 268 

" best varieties of apples for 

market for 1000 trees 268 
Indiana, Northern, fruits adapted 

to, 206-243 

Southern, do. do., 206-243 

Inland climate, 28 

Inorganic substances, 178 

Insects, life of, 425 

" Coleoptera, 426 

" Orthoptera, 426 

" Hemiptera, 427 

" Neuroptera, 426 

" Lepidoptera, 427 

" Diptera, 427 

" Ilymenoptera, 428 

Iodine, 180 

Iowa, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

Iron, oxides of, 180 

" sulphuret of, 181 

Irrigation of fruit trees, 354 

Island or coast climate, 27 

Isothermal lines, 26 



Kansas, fruits adapted to, 206-243 



PAGE 

Kentucky, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

" best 6 varieties of apples 

for 100 trees, 261 

" best 12 do. do., 262 

" best 20 do. do., 262 

" best varieties of apples 

for 1000 trees, 262 

" best varieties of pears on 

pear stock, 262 

" best varieties of pears on 

quince stock, 262 

" best varieties of peaches, 263 



Land, 
Lisht, 



Lime, 



value of, 135 

42 
experiment with, upon peaches, 42 
chemical properties of, 43 

of the moon, 43 

179 
carbonate of, 179 

sulphate of, 180 

nitrate of, 180 

phosphate of, 180 

action of, 185 



Magnesia, carbonate of, 181 

Magnesium, cloride of, 181 

Maine, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

" best varieties of apples for, 245 

" " " " pears " 245 

" " " " plums " 245 

u u u a cherries " 245 

Manganese, 181 

Manure, adapted to clay earth, 183 

" " " peaty soil, 183 

" " " sandy soil, 186 

" heap, formation of, 186 

" liquid, 194 

" " value of, 196 

" application of, 197 

" " " paper upon, 

by Boussingault, 198 

" green, application of, 200 

Marl, 185 

Maryland, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

Massachusetts, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

" best 6 varieties of ap- 

l)les for, 245 

" best 12 varieties of ap- 

ples for, 245 

*' best varieties of pears 

on pear stock for 100 
trees, 246 



INDEX. 



519 



Massachusetts, best varieties of pears 

on quince stock, 246 
" best varieties of straw- 

berries, 246 

" best varieties of grapes,246 

Michigan, Northern, fruits adapted 

to, 20G-243 

" Southern, do. do., 206-243 

" best G varieties of apples 

for 100 trees, 269 

" best 12 do. do., 269 

" best 20 do. do., 269 

" best varieties of apples for 

1000 trees with a near 
market, 269 

" do. where market is dis- 

tant, 269 

" best 6 varieties of pears 

on pear stock for 100 
trees, 269 

" best 12 do. do., 270 

" best varieties of pears on 

quinco stock, 270 

" best 6 varieties of peaches 

for 100 trees, 270 

'« best 12 do. do., 270 

" best varieties of peaches 

for transportation to 
northern markets, 270 

Mississippi, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
" best 6 varieties of apples 

for 100 trees, 259 

" best 12 do. do., 259 

" best 20 do. do., 260 

" best 6 varieties of pears 

on pear stock, 260 

« best 12 do. do., 260 

" best 6 varieties of pears 

on quince stock, 261 

best 12 do. do., 261 

" best varieties of peaches 

for 100 trees, 261 

Missouri, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

Moisture, absorption of by soils from 

the air, 68 

Moss, removal of, 815 

Mulching, 348 

•* material for, 348 

" time for, 349 

" depth of, 349 

" effect of upon the goose- 
berry, 350 
" continuance of, 350 



PAGE 

Nebraska, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

Nectarine, soil for, 87 

" training of, 311 

New Hampshire, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
New Jersey, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
" " best 6 varieties of apples 

for 100 trees, 250 

" " best 12 do. do., 251 

" " best 20 do. do., 251 

" " best varieties for 1000 

trees, 251 

" " best 6 varieties of pears 

on pear stock, 251 

" " best 12 do. do., 252 

" " best for 1000 trees, 252 

" " best 12 varieties of pears 

on quince, 252 

" " best varieties for 1000 

trees, 253 

" " best 6 varieties of peaches,253 
" " best 12 varieties of do., 254 
New York, Eastern, fruits adapted 

to, 206-243 

'• " Western, do. do., 20G-243 
" " best 6 varieties of apples 

for 100 trees, 249 

" " best 12 do. do., 249 

" " best 20 do. do., 249 

" " best varieties for market 

for 1000 trees, 249 

" " best 6 varieties of pears 

on pear stock, 249 

" " best 12 do. do., 250 

" " best 6 varieties of pears 

on quince stock, 250 

" " best 12 do. do., 250 

" " best for market, 250 

" " best 12 varieties of peach- 
es, 250 
" " best 6 do. do , 250 
Nitrogen, 176 



Ohio, Northern, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
" " best 6 varieties of 

apples for 100 trees, 263 
" " best 12 do. do., 263 

" " best 20 do. do., 263 

." " best varieties of ap- 

ples for market, 264 
" " best 6 varieties of 

pears on pear stock,264 
" " best 12 do. do., 264 



520 



INDEX. 



Ohio. Northern, best 12 varieties of 
pears on quince 
stock, 264 

" " best 12 varieties of 

pears for market, 264 
" " best 12 varieties of 

peaches, 264 

" " best 12 varieties for 

100 trees, 265 

Ohio, Central, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
«' " best 6 varieties of ap- 

ples for 100 trees, 265 
'» " best 12 do. do., 265 

" " best 20 do. do., 265 

" " best 6 varieties of 

pears on pear stock,265 
" '« best 12 do. do, 265 

" " best 12 varieties of 

pears for market, 266 
" " best 6 varieties of 

pears on quince 
stock, 266 

" " best 12 do. do., 266 

" " best 12 varieties of 

peaches for 100 
trees, 266 

Ohio. Southern, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
" " best 6 varieties of ap- 

ples for 100 trees, 266 
" " best 12 do. do., 266 

" " best 20 do. do., 267 

" " best 6 varieties of 

pears on pear stock, 267 
" best 12 do. do., 267 

'« «' best 6 varieties of 

pears on quince 
stock, 267 

" «« best 12 do. do., 207 

" *' best 6 varieties of 

peaches, 267 

" " best 12 do. do., 267 

Oxygen, 168 



Packing fruit, 


362 


Peach, soil for. 


87 


" age of tree for planting. 


282 


'' training of, 


311 


" diseases of : 




I. Those affecting the leaf — 




1. Dotted apple-leaf worm, 


444 


2. Vegetable parasites. 


483 


II. Diseasps affecting the fruit — 




1. The rose bug, 


454 



PAGE 

2. Sterility, 444 

3. Premature fall of the fruit, 490 

III. Diseases affecting the stem — 

1. Insects: 

(1) The peach-tree borer, 490 

(2) The snapping beetle, 460 

2. Gumming, 491 

3. Profusion of sap, 462 

4. Vitiation of the sap, 476 

5. Decay, 468 

6. Sunstroke, 473 

7. Wounds, 474 
Pear, soil for, 88 

" varieties adapted to soils, 88 

" age of trees for planting, 278 
" height of tree not a criterion of 

value, 279 

" deep planting for dwarfs, 281 

" pruning of, 319 

" varieties for winter exposures, 45 
" diseases of: 
J. Those afffcting the leaf— 

1. American pear blight, 476 

2. Insects: 

(1) The goldsmith beetle, 479 

(2) The red mite, 480 

(3) The pear-tree slug, 480 

(4) The pear-tree lyda, 481 

(5) Large pear-tree astyages, 481 

(6) Hispa quadrata, 482 

3. Fungi, 

(1) Ascomyces Bullatus, 483 

(2) Ceratites, 432 

(3) Cladosporium dendriticum, 431 

4. Discolorations, 483 

5. Premature fall of the leaf, 428 
II. Diseases affecting the flower and 

fruit — 

1. Bletting, or rotting at the core, 484 

2. Induration, 485 

3. Sterility, 444 

4. Immaturity of the fruit, 450 

5. Deficiency in the cutaneous se- 

cretion, 483 



487 



487 



III. Disaeses affecting the stem- 

1. Root blight, 

2. Insects: 

(1) The pear-blight beetle, 

(2) The pear-bark louse, 488 

(3) The locust of the " seven- 

teenth year, 462 

3. Fungus upon the root, 488 



^ 



INDEX. 



521 



Pears, diseases of: 

IV. Diseases affecting the tree gen- 
erally — 

1. Profusion of sap, 462 

2. Stagnation from transplanta- 

tion, 464 

3. Vitiation of the sap, 476 

4. Canker, 465 

5. Decay, 468 

6. Freezing, 469 

7. Windshakes, 472 

8. Dropsy, 473 

9. Sunstrokes, 473 

10. Wounds, 474 

11. Lichens, 475 
Pennsylvania, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

*' best 6 varieties of ap- 

ples for 100 trees, 254 
'* best 12 do. do., 254 

" best 20 do. do,, 254 

** best varieties of apples 

for 1000 trees, 254 

" best 6 varieties of pears 

on pear stock, 255 

" best 12 do. for 1000 

trees, 255 

" best 6 varieties of pears 

on quince stock, 255 

" best 6 varieties of 

peaches for 100 trees, 255 
" best 12 do. for 1000 

trees, 255 

Percolation, 101 

Phosphorus, 181 

Physical influences, 397 

Planting, distances for, 290 

Plum, soil for, 89 

" diseases of: 



i. Those affecting the leaf— 




1. Insects: 




(1) The plum louse. 


492 


(2) The vaporer moth. 


437 


(3) The unicorn moth, 


440 


il. Diseases affecting the fruit — 




1. Insects: 




(l)Thecurculio, 


492 


(2) The rose bug, 


454 


2. The fall of the fruit, 


490 


3. Sterility, 


444 


III. Diseases affecting the stem — 




1. The plum wart, 


495 


2. Gumming, 


491 


44* 





Plum, diseases of: 

IV. Diseases affecting- the tree gen- 
erally — 

1. Profusion of sap, 462 

2. Vitiation of the sap, 476 

3. Freezing, 469 

4. Dropsy, 473 

5. Wounds, 474 
Pollen, manner of conveyance of, 408 

" tubes, size of, 409 

Potash, carbonate of, 181 

" nitrate of, 182 

Potassium, chloride of, 181 

Preservation of fruit, 359 

Protection of half-hardy plants, 40 

Protococeus nivalis, 36 

Pruning, designs of, 302 

'* importance of a sharp knife 

in, 303 

" method of making the cut in,303 
" severe, productive of vigor, 304 
" formation of an equal sys- 
tem of brandies by, 306 
" for the cure of disease, 307 
'* season of, 308 
" winter, 308 
" summer, 309 
" after transplanting, 310 
" the peach and nectarine, 311 
" the apricot, 318 
" the pear, 319 
" the cherry, 324 
" the vine, .326 
" the vine, season of, 327 
" the vine in the Ionian Island,327 
" the currant, 334 
" the gooseberry, 336 
" the raspberry, 337 
" the black-cap raspberry, 337 
" the blackberry, 338 
" the strawberry, 339 
" root, 341 
Pulverization, 127 
" increase of capillary by,133 
" eflectof upon root-pas- 
ture, 134, 142 
" Tull's theory of, 136 
*' by insects, 137 
" effects of, by Mechi, 138 
" depth of, 141 
" production of fresh soil 

by, 148 

" mixture of earths by, 149 



522 



INDEX. 



Pulverization, admission of air to 

roots by, 150 

" experiments upon, 153 

" -with the spade, 154 

" do. do., effects of, 156 

" season for, 157 

" results of, 158 
" prevention of drought 

by, 163 

Turchase, time for, of trees. 291 

Quince, soil for, 89 

Radiation of heat, 87 

Eain, fall of, in wine districts, 39 

Easpberry, soil for, 89 

grub, 502 

" pruning of, 337 

Eed clover as a green manure, 194 

Eetention of moisture by soils, 67 

Rhode Island, fruits adapted to, 206-243 
" '« best 6 varieties of ap- 

ples for 100 trees, 246 
" » best 12 do. do., 240 

" « best 20 do. do., 247 

" " best 6 varieties of 

pears on pear stock 
for 100 trees, 247 

" " best 12 do. do., 247 

" " best 6 varieties of 

pears on quince for 
100 trees, 247 

" " best 12 do. do., 247 

Ringing of fruit, 353 

Roots of plants in undrained soil, 114 
" do, do., drained soil, 115 

" length of, on dwarf pear trees, 145 
" do. do., peach trees, 147 

" selective power of, 166 

" pruning, 341 

Rye as a green manure, 194 



Saccharine fermentation, 43 

Seed, selection of, from young trees, 395 
Seedlings, efTcct of pruning and trans- 
planting upon, 415 
" number of years before 

maturity, 416 

Selection, in raising new sorts, 391 

" of the tree, 272 

" indiscriminate, of varieties, 201 



PAGE 

Shelter on prairie lands, 35 

Silica, 181 

Snow, limbs broken by, 32 

Soda, sulphate of, 182 

" carbonate of, 182 

" phosphate of, 182 

Sodium, chloride of, 182 

Soils, disintegration of, 49 

" description of fertile, 51 

" galvanic power in, 53 

" properties of specific gravity, 65 

" afSuity for moisture, 63 

" retention of moisture 67 

" absorption of moisture from the 

air, 68 

" capillary attraction, 69 

" weight of. 66 

" shrinkage of, 68 

" state of division of, 69 
" absori)tion of oxygen, carbonic 

acid, etc. by, 71 

*' absorption and retention of 

heat by, 73 
" heat of, depending upon color, 74 

" classification of, 79 

" adaptation of, 81 

" adapted to the apple, 81 

" drainage of, 90 

" sourness of, unpulverized, 132 
" temperature of, at different 

depths, 161 
" temperature of, in different 

mouths, IGl 

" loosening of, 346 
" and poL-ition, influence of, upon 

offspring, 386 

Specific gravity, 65 

Spurry as a green manure, 194 

Stagnant air, 34 

Staking limbs, 355 

Stigma, season of sensitiveness of, 402 

Storms, nature of, 29 

" snow, 31 

Strawberry, soil for, 89 

" pruning of, 339 

" irrigation of, 341 

Sulphuric acid, 182 

Sunshine, importance of, 305 

Thinning fruit, 351 

Tile-pipe, cost of, 118 

Trellises for the vine, 330 

Training the peach and nectarine, 311 



INDEX. 



523 



PAGE 

Training oblique rod, 812 
" double oblique rod, 313 
" standards, 314 
" alphabetically, 315 
" horizontal, 317 
" the apricot, 318 
" quenonille, 322 
" wine-glass, 323 
" the vine, simple cane, 328 
" the vine Thomery, 329 
" the vine in Ohio, 831 
" the vine for renewal, 333 
Transplantation, season for, 292 
" dependent on con- 
dition of soil, 293 
" paring roots at, 293 
*' manner of opera- 
tion, 294 
« depth of, 294 
" use of manure at, 297 
" of strawberries, 297 
" byMr. McGlashins 

machine, 298 

Transplanting, value of, 280 

Turnips as a green manure, 194 

Tying and staking limbs, 855 



Van Mons, results of his experiments. 
Varieties, production of, 
" necessity for new, 
" limit to life of, 
" production of, by selection, 
" adaptation of, 
Vermont, fruits adapted to, 206- 

Vetch as a green manure. 
Vicar of Winkfield pear, ripening of, 
Vine, limit of, in Europe, 
'• age of, for planting, 
" season of pruning, 
" trellises foy, 

*' pruning of, in Ionian Islands, 
" simple cane training of, 
" Thomery training of, 
" training of, in Ohio, 
" training of, for renewal, 



384 



Vine, diseases of: 

I. Those affecting the foliage — 

1. Insects: 

(1) The vine plume, 503 

(2) The saw-fly, 503 

(3) Anomala vitis, 504 

(4) The spotted vine beetle, 505 

(5) The vine pyralis, 505 

(6) Procris Americana, 506 

(7) Haltica chalybea, 506 

(8) The leaf-hopper, 507 

(9) Bombyx grata, 507 

(10) Philampelus, 508 

(11) Choeroeampa vitis, 508 

(12) Rynchitis vitis, 508 

2. Fungi, 

(1) Vine mildew, 509 

(2) Erysiphe, 512 

(3) Botrytis, 513 
II. Diseases affecting the flower and 

fruit — 

1. The rose bug, 454 

2. Shanking, 413 
Virginia, fruits adapted to, 206-243 

" best varieties of apples for 

100 trees, 255 

" best varieties of apples for 

1000 trees, 256 

" best 20 varieties of pears on 

pear stock, 256 

" best 20 varieties of pears on 

quince stock, 256 

Water, contiguity of large bodies of, 27 
Watering of fruit trees, 354 

Weathering of rocks, agencies in, 63 

White Lupine as a green manure, 193 
Winds prevailing east of Eocky 

Mountains, 30 

" severe, 33 

" in vicinity of Boston, 33 

Wine, quantity and quality modified 

by heat, 37 

Winters, mild, 41 

Wisconsin, fruits adapted to, 206-245 






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